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'fciCJfctcu't  aJ/ 


/ffo 


THE 

ARCHITECT, 

OR 

COMPLETE  BUILDER’S  GUIDE, 

ILLUSTRATED  BY 

SIXTY-SIX  ENGRAVINGS, 

WHICH  EXHIBIT  THE  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE, 

AND 

OTHER  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  ART. 

DESIGNED  FOR 

THE  USE  OF  BUILDERS, 
PARTICULARLY  OF  CARPENTERS  AND  JOINERS. 


AUTHOR  OF  “THE  AMERICAN  BUILDER’S  COMPANION,”  “THE  RUDIMENTS  OF  ARCHITECTURE,” 
“THE  PRACTICAL  HOUSE  CARPENTER,”  AND  “PRACTICE  OF  ARCHITECTURE.” 


BOSTON : 

BENJAMIN  B.  MUSSEY, 

1  84  5. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1844, 

BY  ASHER  BENJAMIN, 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


PREFACE. 


The  present  work,  like  the  other  works  of  the  author,  is  designed  prin¬ 
cipally  for  the  use  of  those  builders  who  reside  at  a  distance  from  cities, 
where  they  cannot  have  the  assistance  of  a  regular  architect.  It  is  neces¬ 
sary  for  such,  if  they  wish  to  excel  in  their  occupation,  to  have  a  correct 
practical  knowledge  of  architecture,  and,  for  that  purpose,  to  study  such 
practical  works  as  furnish  the  true  principles  of  the  art,  and  are  adapted  to 
their  practice.  No  pains  have  been  spared  to  give  to  this  work  the  char¬ 
acter  which  persons  of  this  class  will  require.  It  contains  all  the  elements 
and  details  of  the  art,  from  the  most  simple,  to  those  the  most  difficult  and 
complicated.  Great  labor  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  orders  and  their 
appendages,  so  as  to  render  them  intelligible,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
practice  of  the  day.  The  author  has  had  regard  to  the  habits  and  economy 
of  this  country,  deviating,  at  the  same  time,  as  little  as  possible  from  the 
style  and  practice  of  Europe.  He  has  made  copious  selections  from  many 
valuable  works,  for  which  he  acknowledges  a  debt  of  gratitude ;  and  he 
has  also  freely  followed  his  own  judgment  and  experience,  in  suggesting 
such  alterations  and  ideas  as  appeared  to  him  useful. 


CONTENTS. 


Grecian  Mouldings,  .... 

Compound  Mouldings,  .... 

Tuscan  Order,  ..... 

Column  and  Entablature, 

Doric  Orders  and  details, 

Ionic  Orders  and  their  details, 

Details  of  several  Orders, 

Corinthian  Orders,  .... 

Anta  Capitals,  ..... 

Antse  and  their  Entablatures, 
Intercolumniation,  ..... 

Pedestals  and  Balusters,  .... 

Frontispieces  and  their  details, 

Portico  and  its  details,  .... 

Inside  Doors  and  their  mouldings,  . 
Windows  and  their  finishings, 

French  Window  and  its  details, 

Base  Mouldings,  and  Architraves,  . 
Cornices  for  inside  and  for  outside  finishing, 
Consoles,  ...... 

Centre  Piece,  ..... 

Shop  Fronts,  ...... 

Stairs,  ....... 

Chimney  Pieces,  ...... 

Window  Guards  and  Verandahs, 

Vases,  with  their  decorations, 

Church  and  its  details,  .... 

Carpentry,  ...... 


Plate  I. 
.  II.  and  III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI.  and  VII. 
VIII.  to  XI. 

XII. 
XIII.  to  XV. 
.  XVI.  and  XVII. 
.  XVIII.  to  XX. 

XXI. 

XXII.  and  XXIII. 
XXIV.  to  XXVIII. 
XXIX.  and  XXX. 
XXXI.  to  XXXIV. 
XXXV.  to  XXXVIII. 
XXXIX.  and  XL. 

XLI.  and  XLII. 
XLIII.  and  XLIV. 
XLV.  and  XLVI. 

XLVII. 
XLVIII. 
XLIX.  and  L. 
LI.  and  LII. 
LIII.  to  LVI. 
LVII. 

.  LVIII.  to  LXI. 
.  LXII.  to  LXVI. 


THE  BUILDER’S  GUIDE. 


GRECIAN  MOULDINGS. 

Plate  I. 

The  outline  of  every  Grecian  moulding  is  taken  from  some  one  of  the 
sections  of  the  cone,  and  is  susceptible,  therefore,  of  as  many  variations  as 
can  be  made  of  those  sections.  Different  outlines  are  necessary  in  nearly 
all  the  great  variety  of  situations  in  which  these  mouldings  may  be  employed, 
and  to  ascertain  the  particular  form  best  adapted  to  each  situation,  requires 
a  discriminating  eye,  assisted  by  good  practical  judgment,  and  a  knowledge 
of  the  effects  produced  on  the  surface  of  the  mouldings  by  light  and  shade, 
by  reflected  light  and  surrounding  objects.  It  would  take  so  much  time 
and  labor  to  determine  the  particular  section  of  the  cone  corresponding  to 
the  exact  outline  required  in  each  case,  as  to  forbid  that  course  in  common 
practice.  I  have  therefore  in  my  own  practice,  taken  a  thin  mahogany 
veneer,  and  with  a  penknife  and  file  cut  it  to  the  proper  size  and  form  of 
outline,  judging  by  my  eye  ;  and  described  the  outline  of  the  moulding  by 
the  pattern  thus  formed.  If  this  practice  be  adopted,  taking  care  to  make 
new  patterns  when  necessary,  and  never  to  alter  old  ones,  it  will  not  re- 


6 


GRECIAN  MOULDINGS. 


quire  a  great  length  of  time  to  get  possession  of  a  sufficient  number  to 
answer  for  almost  every  case. 

Fig.  ],  D  b  c  d  a  ef  g  A,  is  a  section  of  the  cone  made  by  a  plane 
passing  through  it  parallel  to  one  of  its  sides,  and  is  called  a  parabola.  D 
b  c  d  a  ef  g  A,  on  Fig.  2,  represents  a  section  of  a  cone  made  by  a  plane 
passing  through  perpendicular  to  its  base,  and  is  called  a  hyperbola.  To 
draw  Fig.  1,  bisect  D  A  and  C  B  at  a  and  a ,  and  join  a  a  ;  divide  a  A 
and  a  D,  each  into  four  equal  parts  and  join  ;  1  d,  2  c,  3  b  and  1  e,  2f  3g-, 
parallel  to  a  a ;  divide  D  C  and  A  B,  each  into  four  equal  parts ;  from  D 
C,  draw  lines  1  a,  intersecting  3  b  at  b,  and  draw  2  a  and  3  a,  intersecting 
2  c  at  c,  and  1  d  at  d ;  from  A  B,  draw  1  a,  2  a,  and  3  a,  intersecting  1  e 
at  e,  2  f  at  f  and  3  g  at  g  ;  then  draw  the  curve  line  through  the  points  D 
bcdaefg  A,  which  forms  the  section  required. 

The  method  of  drawing  the  hyperbola  differs  from  the  above  only  in  this, 
that  the  lines  1  d,  2  c,  3  6,  and  1  e,  2  /,  3  g,  would  if  produced,  meet  in  a 
point  at  E. 

C  is  drawn  on  the  principle  of  the  parabola,  and  D,  on  that  of  the 
hyperbola;  C  projects  about  one-half  of  Fig.  1,  and  D  about  one-half 
of  Fig.  2.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  a  moulding  of  any  height  and 
projection  may  be  drawn  by  this  process,  and  that  the  only  difference  in 
drawing  the  examples  E  and  F,  is  by  inclining,  in  the  latter  case,  the  line 
on  which  the  divisions  are  made,  upwards,  so  that  if  produced,  it  would  at 
no  great  distance  from  the  moulding,  intersect  the  line  of  the  fillet,  and 
that  the  more  this  line  is  inclined  upwards,  the  nearer  the  lower  part  of 
the  moulding  approaches  to  a  straight  line. 

G  is  an  example  of  a  cymareversa,  which  is  drawn  on  the  principle  of 
the  parabola,  and  requires  therefore  nothing  more  than  an  examination  of 
the  Plate,  to  be  understood. 

To  draw  the  cymarecta  H,  make  a  d  its  projection,  and  d  c  its  height ; 
bisect  a  d  at  g,  and  b  c  at  h,  and  join  g  h ;  bisect  a  b  at  e,  and  d  c  at  f 
and  join  e  f ;  divide  i  f  i  e,  i  g,  and  i  h,  each  into  a  like  number  of  equal 


^rOI'LDIX  GS 


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Fig?.  c. 

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V. 

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D.  /  ■=*  J  C. 

1). 


H. 


t'r.  w.  Boynton  Sc 


MOULD  1 X G  S  . 


/V.  //. 


mo  in. i  >ixc,s. 


/  *1.1/7. 


MOULDINGS.  — TUSCAN  ORDER. 


7 


parts,  as  in  this  instance  into  four ;  from  d,  draw  lines  through  the  points 
1  2  3  in  i  /,  and  continue  them  until  they  intersect  other  lines  drawn  from 
c  to  1  2  3  on  i  h,  and  then,  through  these  points  of  intersection,  trace  the 
curve  of  the  moulding  from  c  to  i.  Also  from  b ,  draw  lines  through  the 
points  1  2  3  on  i  e,  and  continue  them  as  before  through  the  points  12  3 
on  i  g,  until  they  intersect  other  lines  drawn  from  a  to  1  2  3  on  i  g  ;  then, 
through  these  points  of  intersection,  draw  the  curve  line  of  the  moulding 
from  i  to  a. 


COMPOUND  MOULDINGS. 

Pl  ATES  II.  AND  III. 

On  these  plates,  are  thirty  different  examples  of  sections  for  mouldings, 
all  of  which  are  drawn  on  a  large  scale,  and  figured  for  practice.  They 
have  been  selected  with  great  care,  from  the  best  Grecian  examples ;  but 
many  of  them  are,  in  their  form  of  outline  and  their  particular  combinations, 
entirely  new ;  and  have  not  before,  to  my  knowledge,  appeared  before  the 
public  in  the  form  which  they  now  assume.  The  practising  carpenter  will  be 
able  at  once  from  these  examples  to  select  some  one  adapted  to  his  purpose. 


THE  TUSCAN  ORDER. 

Plate  IY. 

Vitruvius  has  given  this  order  a  name,  and  assigned  it  a  place  with  the 
other  orders  in  his  book,  but  he  does  not  tell  us  of  a  single  building  on 
which  it  was  employed.  We  are  therefore  left  to  suppose  that  its  simple 


8 


TUSCAN  ORDER. 


plainness  did  not  suit  the  taste  of  the  Romans  of  his  day.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  the  inhabitants  of  Tuscany,  before  the  Romans  had 
intercourse  with  the  Greeks,  or  had  become  acquainted  with  their  arts  and 
sciences.  If  this  be  true,  we  may  presume  that  the  eminent  architects  of 
those  days  did  not  consider  it  worthy  of  being  employed  on  the  public 
buildings  erected  by  them,  for  if  they  had,  some  example  of  it  would  most 
certainly  have  been  discovered  among  their  ruins.  The  base  of  Trajan’s 
column,  and  that  of  the  third  order  of  the  Coliseum,  are  in  imitation  of  the 
Tuscan  base  5  but  the  capital  of  the  latter  is  Corinthian,  and  the  column 
is  eight  diameters  and  forty-seven  minutes  in  height,  and  that  of  the  former 
is  Doric,  and  the  column  eight  diameters  in  height.  Neither  of  these  ex¬ 
amples  can  therefore  be  considered  Tuscan. 

Vitruvius  is  particular  in  explaining  the  proportions  of  the  Tuscan  tem¬ 
ples.  He  gives  the  relative  length,  breadth  and  height  of  their  walls,  and 
also  the  number,  size  and  distribution  of  the  columns.  He  then  describes 
the  order,  making  the  column  seven  diameters  high,  including  base  and 
capital,  each  of  those  members  being  one-half  of  a  diameter  in  height. 
The  column  diminishes  one-quarter  of  the  lower  diameter.  The  entabla¬ 
ture  is  less  than  tw  o  diameters  in  height.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  un¬ 
derstand  the  exact  height  which  it  was  intended  the  entablature  should 
have.  The  frieze  recedes  a  little  from  the  face  of  the  architrave,  neither 
of  which  have  either  moulding  or  ornament.  The  cornice  projects  one 
fourth  of  the  height  of  the  column,  which  renders  it  unfit  for  common  use. 
The  modern  architects  who  have  written  on  the  orders  have,  with  trifling 
deviations,  adopted  this  column  as  a  standard,  but  the  entablature  has  been 
rejected  by  them,  each  architect  having  composed  an  entablature  as  a  sub¬ 
stitute  for  that  rejected,  which  he  supposed  better  adapted  to  the  column 
and  to  common  use. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  various  members  of  the  Tuscan  order,  by 
five  distinguished  architects,  and  it  is  singular  to  observe  that  no  two  of  them 
have  agreed  in  the  height  of  the  entablature  or  either  of  its  members. 


■  J1'ZJ<>//7lt(>/L-  Jf  . 


TUSCAN  ORDER. 


9 


«  8# 

4-.  . 

Ci  O  e 

u,  ^4  s 

a>  0  3 

it  of 

olumn 

meters. 

C*- 

0  5 

•*->  rt 

rt 

O 

O 

S  s 

rt  C 

S  0 

tc  .2 
’aJ  a)  'O 

a)  0 

a)  *5 

S  E 

Q55 

xsa 

s  £ 

re  s 

it 

re  8 

Palladio, . 

60. 

45. 

7 . 

1 . 444 

35 

26 

434 

Scamozi, . 

60. 

45 . 

7 . 30 

1 .524 

32  £ 

39 

41 

Serlio, . 

60. 

45. 

6  . 

1 . 30 

30 

30 

30 

Vignola, . 

60. 

48  . 

7  . 

1 . 40 

25 

35 

40 

Sir  William  Chambers, 

60. 

50. 

7  . 

1 .45 

314 

314 

42 

Sum  total, . 

233. 

34.30 

7  .  12 

154 

162 

197 

Average, . 

464 

6.54 

1 . 424 

31 

324 

394 

A  perfect  fitness,  harmony  and  proportion  must  exist  between  the  col¬ 
umn,  its  entablature,  and  the  several  members  of  the  latter,  or  the  compo¬ 
sition  is  defective  5  and  as  an  explanation  of  the  reasons  which  induce  us 
to  believe  that  the  above  entablatures  are  not  of  a  sufficient  height  to  pro¬ 
duce  that  effect,  we  will  consider  the  entablature  in  the  relation  of  a  beam 
of  sufficient  size,  or  apparently  so  to  sustain  a  weight  equal  to  that  of  the 
columns  on  which  each  end  of  the  beam  rests.  It  is  well  known  that,  the 
greater  the  distance  the  columns  or  supports  to  the  beam  are  from  each 
other,  the  larger  must  be  the  bulk  of  the  beam,  to  answer  its  intended  pur¬ 
pose.  Vitruvius,  and  the  respectable  authors  above  named,  have  placed 
the  Tuscan  columns  at  a  greater  distance  from  each  other,  than  those  of 
either  of  the  other  orders.  It  follows  therefore,  that,  to  preserve  symmetry 
and  proportion,  this  entablature  must  be  made  at  least  equal  in  height  to 
those  of  the  other  orders  5  and  it  has  therefore  received  in  this  example  the 
same  relative  height  to  the  column.  But  it  is  not  supposed  that  the  height, 
here  allowed  to  either  the  column  or  its  entablature,  will  at  all  times  and 
places  be  the  one  most  suitable.  For  example,  a  column  which  has  ap¬ 
parently  but  a  small  burthen  to  support  does  not  require  to  be  made  so 
large,  as  one  which  has  to  sustain  a  very  great  weight.  Nor  does  an  en- 


10 


COLUMN  AND  ENTABLATURE. 


tablature,  whose  length  does  not  exceed  ten  or  twenty  feet,  require  to  be 
made  so  high,  as  one  which  stretches  unbroken  through  the  whole  length 
of  a  large  building,  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  feet. 

As  diameters  and  minutes  are  the  standard  measures  by  which  this 
and  the  other  orders  are  drawn,  it  may  he  well  to  explain  what  these 
measures  are. 

A  diameter,  is  the  distance  across  the  shaft  of  the  column  at  its  base, 
whether  large  or  small ;  and  a  minute,  is  one-sixtieth  part  of  a  diameter. 
The  height  and  projection  of  all  the  different  members  of  the  order  are 
figured  in  minutes. 

The  column  of  figures  under  H,  expresses  the  height  of  the  members, 
and  those  under  P,  their  projections. 

Suppose  it  he  required  to  draw  this  order  to  the  height  of  seventeen  feet, 
four  inches ;  now,  because  the  column  is  seven  diameters,  and  the  entabla¬ 
ture  two,  which  added  together  makes  nine,  we  divide  the  seventeen  feet, 
•four  inches,  into  nine  equal  parts,  one  of  which  will  be  twenty-three  and 
one-ninth  inches,  and  is  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  column.  Subdivide 
this  into  sixty  equal  parts,  as  shown  by  the  scale  of  minutes  on  the  Plate. 

A,  shows  a  section  of  the  crown  moulding ;  B,  a  section  of  the  bed 
mould ;  C,  a  profile  of  the  capital,  drawn  on  a  large  scale,  for  the  purpose 
of  showing  in  the  clearest  manner  the  particular  form  of  these  mouldings. 


COLUMN  AND  ENTABLATURE. 

Plate  V. 

0 

The  example  here  given  of  a  column  and  entablature,  will  be  found  use¬ 
ful,  when  the  Tuscan  order  is  thought  to  be  too  plain,  and  the  Doric  too 
expensive.  The  shaft  of  the  column  is  divided  into  sixteen  flutes,  in  imita- 


PL  I 


DORIC  ORDER. 


11 


tion  of  its  original,  which  is  taken  from  the  temple  at  Sunium.  This  is  the 
only  example  of  all  the  Grecian  antiquities  which  had  less  than  twenty 
flutes.  Where  the  column  is  of  very  large  dimensions,  it  will  have  a  bold 
and  impressive  effect ;  but  when  the  column  does  not  exceed  eight  or  ten 
inches  in  diameter,  and  extends  eight  or  more  diameters  in  height,  it  has 
the  appearance  of  being  about  to  make  an  indentation  into  the  step  on 
which  it  stands,  an  effect  which  will  be  relieved  by  adding  a  base.  The 
several  members  of  this  entablature  have  been  selected  from  such  of  the 
Grecian  examples,  as  were  supposed  most  suitable.  This  column  may  be 
made  seven  or  eight  or  more  diameters  in  height,  as  circumstances  may 
require.  The  entablature  is  two  diameters  in  height. 

A,  exhibits  a  section  of  the  crown  moulding  of  the  cornice  ;  B,  a  section 
of  the  bed  mould  ;  C,  a  section  of  the  band  of  the  architrave ;  and  D,  a 
section  of  the  capital,  all  of  which  are  drawn  on  a  large  scale  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  showing  the  outline  of  the  mouldings.  A  section  of  the  capital  of 
the  antae  is  shown  in  No.  2,  Plate  XVI.,  and  of  the  base  at  C,  Plate  XX. 


DORIC  ORDER. 

Plate  VI. 

This  order,  together  with  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian,  is  of  Greek  inven¬ 
tion.  Enough  of  those  renowned  temples,  which  were  built  by  the  Greeks 
after  these  orders,  have  withstood  the  ravages  of  time  and  the  rapacity  of 
barbarians,  to  make  manifest  the  skill  and  splendid  talents  of  their  archi¬ 
tects.  We  are  indebted,  first  to  Stewart  and  Revel,  and  then  to  several 
distinguished  English  architects,  for  very  accurate  measurements  and  delin¬ 
eations  of  these  temples,  with  all  their  details,  and  also  for  many  fragments 


12 


DORIC  ORDER. 


of  other  buildings.  We  are  not  therefore  obliged  to  depend  upon  any  vague 
and  doubtful  representations,  in  relation  to  the  inventions  and  practice  of 
these  orders,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Tuscan  order. 

The  Doric  order  was  invented  for  some  time  and  employed  on  many 
buildings,  before  the  invention  of  either  of  the  others.  It  has  graceful 
forms  and  massive  proportions.  Its  columns  varied  very  much  in  their 
proportions  in  different  buildings.  In  the  early  practice  of  the  order,  the 
column  appears  to  have  been  made  only  four  diameters  and  four  minutes  in 
height,  but  at  later  periods  the  Grecian  architects  increased  its  height  to 
six  diameters  and  thirty-two  minutes.  The  height  of  the  entablature  also, 
and  the  proportions  of  its  different  members,  varied  very  considerably.  No 
two  examples,  which  were  erected  at  about  the  same  time  and  by  the  same 
architect,  agree  either  in  the  height  of  their  columns,  or  of  the  entablature, 
or  in  their  details.  The  Grecian  architects,  it  seems,  looked  first  at  the 
object  to  be  effected,  and  then  gave  the  requisite  proportions  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  building.  They  nevertheless  contrived,  with  all  their  devia¬ 
tions  in  practice,  to  retain  the  severe  Doric  character,  by  uniformly  resting 
the  column  on  a  step  or  floor  without  base  moulding,  by  fluting  the  shaft 
with  twenty  broad  flat  flutes  without  intervening  fillets,  making  from  three 
to  five  annulets  on  the  capital,  and  by  the  triglyphs  and  metopes  in  the 
frieze,  and  the  mutules  in  the  cornice;  none  of  which  details  were  ever 
omitted,  let  the  other  deviations  be  ever  so  great.  In  some  very  fine  speci¬ 
mens  of  this  order,  the  necking  and  a  space  at  the  base  of  about  equal 
height  w  ere  fluted,  leaving  the  remaining  part  of  the  shaft  plain.  The 
massive  simplicity  of  the  Grecian  Doric,  produced  by  a  skillful  arrange¬ 
ment  of  its  details,  will  be  sought  for  in  vain  in  the  Roman  Doric,  with  its 
slender  column  and  details  badly  adapted  and  arranged. 

We  have  made  no  attempt  to  assign  a  determinate  height  to  the  column 
of  the  example  here  given,  as  it  will  be  necessary  to  adapt  its  height  to  the 
situation  in  which  it  shall  be  placed.  With  a  view  to  assist  the  judgment 
of  the  student  in  deciding  upon  the  proper  proportions  of  columns,  we  have 


t  the  Frieze 


i  x  u:i< 


( >111)111 


PI  YJ 


DORIC  ORDER. 


13 


given  below  some  of  the  extremes  of  the  practice  of  the  Grecian  and 
Roman  architects. 


The  Temple  at  Corinth, . 

4  minutes. 

The  Temple  of  Jupiter  at  Selinus,  . 

.  4 

<  C 

34 

it 

The  Temple  of  Minerva  at  Athens, 

.  5 

i  t 

33 

c  c 

The  Temple  of  Theseus, . 

.  5 

i  6 

42 

( ( 

The  Temple  ofPropylea, . 

.  5 

<  6 

54 

<  ( 

The  Temple  of  Apollo, . 

.  6 

a 

3 

a 

The  Portico  ofPhillip, . 

.  6 

(  c 

32 

1 1 

The  Temple  of  Jupiter  Nemeus,  .  . 

.  6 

fi 

31 

a 

The  Theatre  of  Marcellus  at  Rome, 

.  7 

i  i 

51 

1 1 

The  Theatre  of  Albano  near  Rome, 

.  7 

it 

Vitruvius,  . 

.  7 

it 

Palladio, . 

.  8 

if 

Scamozzi, . 

.  8 

tt 

Vignola, . 

.  8 

a 

The  three  last  mentioned  authors  have  added  a  base  to  the  column, 
which  reduces  the  shaft  thirty  minutes  in  height. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  list  that  the  Grecian  architects  varied  the 
proportion  of  their  columns  from  four  diameters  and  four  minutes,  to  six 
diameters  thirty-two  minutes;  a  difference  of  two  diameters  and  thirty-two 
minutes ;  but  this  is  a  greater  variation  than  it  will  be  necessary  for  us  to 
use  in  our  practice.  It  is  supposed  that  the  Doric  column  will  not  require 
a  height  of  less  than  six,  nor  more  than  seven  diameters  in  any  situation. 
It  requires  however  more  consideration  to  determine  their  height  than  it 
does  those  of  the  other  orders,  because  the  centre  of  a  triglyph  must  be 
placed  over  the  centre  of  each  column,  with  the  exception  of  those  triglyphs 
which  form  the  angles  of  the  frieze,  so  that  the  intercolumniation  next  to 
the  angular  columns  will  be  something  less  than  that  of  the  others.  The 
intercolumniation  will  be  one  and  a  half  diameters,  where  only  one  triglyph 
is  placed  over  it ;  and  two  and  three  quarters  diameters  where  two  are 
placed  over  it.  To  determine  the  diameter  and  height  of  the  columns  of 

4 


14 


DORIC  ORDER. 


a  Grecian  portico,  suppose  (No.  2,  Plate  XXI.)  the  front  to  have  four 
columns  and  to  extend  twenty-four  feet  nine  inches,  divide  that  distance 
into  thirty-three  equal  parts,  each  of  which  will  be  nine  inches,  give  four 
of  these  parts  which  will  be  three  feet  to  the  diameter  of  the  column. 
Make  the  centre  intercolumniation  equal  to  one  and  a  half  diameters  of  the 
column,  or  four  feet  six  inches,  and  make  each  of  those  intercolumniations 
next  to  the  angular  columns,  four  feet  and  one  and  one-half  inches.  Now 
suppose  the  column  to  be  six  diameters  and  the  entablature  two  diameters 
in  height,  the  portico  will  then  be  twenty-four  feet  in  height.  Suppose  the 
facade  to  be  extended  to  thirty-nine  feet,  nine  inches,  so  as  to  make  a 
portico  of  six  columns  in  front,  (see  No.  1,)  divide  the  front  line  into  fifty- 
three  equal  parts,  each  of  which  will  be  nine  inches,  and  four  of  these  will 
be  three  feet,  or  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  column,  the  intercolumniation 
will  be  the  same  as  in  the  last  example,  and  if  the  column  is  six  diameters 
high,  the  whole  height  of  the  portico  will  also  be  the  same  as  before. 

It  will  be  seen  that  neither  of  these  examples,  although  beautiful  in 
themselves,  can  be  employed  on  dwelling-houses  of  two  stories  in  height, 
because  the  entablature  would  in  that  case  extend  from  the  eaves  down¬ 
ward  a  distance  of  six  feet  or  more,  and  would  of  course  cover  and  destroy 
the  second  story  windows.  If  the  columns  to  the  last  example  were  made 
seven  diameters  high,  the  height  of  the  building  would  be  twenty-seven 
feet,  and  sufficient  for  a  church  where  a  gallery  is  not  wanted;  and  as  the 
intercolumniation  is  small,  a  harmonious  effect  would  be  thereby  produced. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  appears  that  the  Greeks  first  determined  the 
extent  of  the  front  line  of  their  temples,  and  then  made  the  diameter  of  the 
column  a  certain  portion  of  that  line,  and  that  the  height  of  the  building 
depended  on  that  of  the  column  and  entablature.  It  will  be  wise  to  re¬ 
member  these  facts,  and  never  suffer  ourselves  to  deviate  much  from  the 
same  method. 


V 


IONIC  ORDER. 


15 


Plate  VII. 

On  this  Plate  is  a  section  of  the  Doric  cornice,  with  its  plancere  in¬ 
verted  ;  also  a  section  and  front  elevation  of  the  triglyph,  showing  its 
peculiar  connection  with  the  bed-mould.  These  details  have  been  carefully 
drawn  on  a  large  scale,  and  figured  in  minutes  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
the  student  a  clear  and  distinct  knowledge  of  this  complicated  entablature, 
which  is  at  least  three  times  in  four  imperfectly  drawn  and  put  together 
when  not  done  by  an  architect. 

On  Plate  XII.,  No.  4,  is  exhibited  a  plan  and  elevation  of  the  drop  at 
the  lower  extremity  of  the  triglyph,  accurately  drawn  and  figured  in  min¬ 
utes,  and  at  No.  3,  on  the  same  Plate,  a  section  of  the  Doric  flutes.  To 
draw  the  latter,  divide  d  5  into  four  equal  parts,  and  with  the  distance  d  5 
on  d  and  5,  make  the  intersection  b  from  6,  and  through  the  points  1  and 
4,  draw  lines  to  c  and  e,  divide  b  c  and  b  e,  each  into  five  equal  parts  ;  on 
b  c  at  a,  and  b  e  at  a,  and  with  the  distance  a  d  or  a  5,  describe  the  curved 
lines  d  c,  and  5  e,  and  lastly  with  the  distance  b  c  or  b  e,  describe  the  curve 
c  e.  This  method  of  forming  the  flutes  by  parts  of  a  circle  is  not  recom¬ 
mended  as  the  best  for  that  purpose,  but  may  be  used  to  ascertain  their 
depth,  and  then  it  will  be  best  to  form  the  section  of  the  flutes  from  the 
ellipsis. 


IONIC  ORDER. 

Plate  VIII. 

This  was  the  second,  in  point  of  time,  of  the  Grecian  orders.  The  col¬ 
umn  was  generally  made  eight  diameters  in  height,  always  standing  upon  a 
base  composed  of  a  series  of  mouldings,  which  differ  in  number  and  form 


16 


IONIC  ORDER. 


in  different  examples.  The  shaft  diminished  about  ten  minutes,  and  was 
decorated  with  twenty-four  flutes,  having  either  a  semi-circular  or  semi¬ 
elliptical  section,  and  separated  by  fillets  of  about  one-fourth  of  their 
breadth.  The  capital  always  maintains  the  same  character,  but  in  form 
and  richness  of  ornament,  it  varied  very  much  in  different  examples.  The 
capitals  of  the  Erectheum  were  very  highly  ornamented  and  very  beautiful, 
but  the  great  number  of  spiral  lines  winding  round  the  eye  of  the  volutes, 
render  this  example  less  pleasing  when  employed  upon  small  than  it  is 
upon  large  columns.  Those  which  adorned  the  columns  of  the  little  tem¬ 
ple  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Ilissus,  possessed  a  fitness,  a  classical 
beauty  and  harmonious  combination  of  parts  in  which  they  are  universally 
allowed  to  excel  all  others.  Great  deviations  are  found  in  the  different 
examples  of  the  entablature,  in  their  height,  form,  and  the  number  and 
richness  of  their  mouldings.  Its  relative  height  to  that  of  the  column  can¬ 
not  now  be  determined,  as  the  upper  extremity  of  the  cornices,  consisting 
generally  of  the  crown  moulding,  is  wanting;  but  judging  from  the  height 
of  the  architrave,  the  frieze  and  the  remaining  part  of  the  cornice,  that  of 
the  entablature  must  have  generally  been  two  diameters. 

The  example  here  given  is  not  in  exact  imitation  of  any  one  of  the  Gre¬ 
cian  Ionics,  but  is  in  all  respects  purely  Grecian.  In  selecting  its  various 
members  from  ancient  examples,  it  has  been  our  aim  to  adapt  it  to  the 
wants  and  practice  of  the  present  day. 

The  column  was  made  by  the  Grecians  from  eight  to  nine  diameters  in 
height,  which  rule  has  been  followed  by  the  Romans  and  the  moderns,  and 
we  cannot  do  better  than  to  imitate  them.  The  height  of  the  entablature 
in  this  example  is  two  diameters. 

Plate  IX. 

This  Plate  contains  a  second  and  more  ornamented  example  of  the  Ionic 
order.  Its  general  proportions  are  intended  to  be  the  same  as  those  of  the 
first  example.  The  beautiful  ornaments  upon  the  neck  of  the  capital  are 


IONIA'  ORDER. 


/'/.  /X. 


. 

I 


. 

. 


■ 


IONIC  ORDER. 


17 


taken  from  the  Erechtheus  at  Athens,  and  the  leaves  upon  the  bolster  part, 
from  a  fine  specimen  of  this  capital  discovered  near  the  wall  of  the  Acro¬ 
polis  at  Athens. 

For  the  sake  of  variety,  in  the  base,  the  upper  torus  is  fluted,  in  imitation 
of  some  very  fine  Grecian  examples  of  the  Ionic  base.  The  fluted  base, 
though  its  profile  appears  beautiful,  when  represented  on  paper,  does  not, 
when  executed,  possess  that  chaste  beauty  which  is  presented  by  the 
plain  ones. 

'  Plate  X. 

On  this  Plate  are  the  details  of  the  Ionic  capital,  carefully  drawn  on  a 
large  scale,  and  figured  for  practice. 

The  carver  will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  imitate  these  drawings  faith¬ 
fully,  and  thus  escape  the  censure  deservedly  cast  upon  the  many  clumsy, 
awkward  productions  of  this  capital,  which  may  be  seen  in  both  town  and 
country. 

No.  1,  exhibits  a  front  elevation  of  one-half  of  the  capital;  and  No.  2, 
a  section  through,  from  a  to  b ,  on  No.  1.  No.  4,  represents  a  section  of 
one-fourth  part  of  the  column  and  an  inverted  view  of  one-fourth  part  of 
the  capital.  No.  3,  on  this  Plate,  shows  a  section  from  a  to  b ,  on  the  side 
elevation  of  the  capital,  which  is  exhibited  at  No.  1,  Plate  XII. 

To  draw  the  volute  No.  1.  At  two  minutes  distance  from  the  shaft  of 
the  column,  draw  the  vertical  line  b  a  ;  on  o*  as  a  centre,  which  is  twenty 
minutes  distant  from  the  underside  of  the  abacus  at  a,  describe  the  eye, 
making  it  seven  minutes  in  diameter ;  at  the  distance  of  one  and  one-fourth 
of  a  minute  above  and  below  the  centre  of  the  eye,  draw  lines  at  right 
angles  with  b  a,  and  at  the  distance  of  one  and  one-half  minutes  from  b  a , 
and  parallel  therewith,  draw  the  line  10,  11,  which  completes  the  outline 
of  the  square.  From  the  point  o,  draw  the  diagonals  o  10,  and  oil,  and 
divide  each  of  them  into  three  equal  parts ;  from  these  points,  and  at  right 

*  See  the  eye  of  the  volute  at  A,  drawn  on  a  large  scale. 

5 


IS 


CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 


angles  with  b  a ,  draw  lines  cutting  b  a  at  1,  5,  and  4,  8.  The  points 
numbered  from  1  to  11,  are  the  centres,  on  which  the  volute  is  drawn. 
The  twelfth  centre  is  found,  by  continuing  the  line  at  the  top  of  the  square, 
one  and  one-half  minutes  across  b  a  to  12.  On  1,  as  a  centre,  and  with 
the  distance  1  c,  draw  c  d ;  on  2,  and  with  the  distance  2  d ,  draw  d  e  ; 
on  3,  and  with  the  distance  3  e,  draw  e  f ;  with  the  distance  4 /,  draw7  f  g, 
which  completes  one  revolution.  On  5,  draw  g  h  ;  on  6,  draw  h  i ;  on  7, 
draw  i  j ;  on  8,  draw  j  k ;  on  9,  draw  1c  l ;  on  10,  draw  l  m  ;  on  11,  draw 
mn;  and  on  12,  drawn  p ,  which  completes  the  outline  of  the  volute. 
To  draw  the  inside  line,  divide  the  fillet  into  twelve  equal  parts,  and  make 
the  fillet  at  n,  equal  to  eleven  of  these  parts,  and  that  at  m,  equal  to  ten  of 
the  same  parts,  and  so  on,  diminishing  its  width  one-twelfth  at  each  quar¬ 
ter  of  a  revolution.  It  will  however  be  best  to  lessen  this  diminution  at 
each  quarter,  after  passing  about  one  and  one-half  revolutions,  or  the  fillet 
will,  before  its  termination,  appear  too  small.  It  is  intended  that  the  face 
of  the  architrave  shall  be  placed  vertically  over  the  line  b  a ,  which  is  two 
minutes  distance  from  the  side  of  the  column  at  its  neck. 

Plate  XI. 

On  this  Plate,  the  details  of  the  capital  of  the  second  example  of  the 
Ionic  order  are  drawn  on  a  large  scale  and  figured  for  practice. 


THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 

Plate  XIII. 

This  order  is  the  third  and  last  in  point  of  time,  of  the  Grecian  orders. 
It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  so  much  a  favorite  among  the  Greeks,  as 
to  have  been  employed  by  them  very  frequently  on  their  public  buildings  : 
and  how  often  it  was  used  on  their  private  buildings  we  cannot  now  deter- 


IONIC  CAPITAL. 


n.ji. 


t .  ft’ J$ oi/n u<n  Sc- 


n.xn. 


•  li’B 01/ net'll  '< 


(’(  UvMXTHLAX  ORDER. 


-- 

> 

/' 

// 

Sj 

U 

// 

in 

flTtl 


£ 


J(  1 


CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 


19 


mine,  as  none  of  those  have  withstood  the  ravages  of  time.  Stuart  and 
Revet  have  measured  and  published  several  fine  examples  of  this  order, 
some  of  which  are  supposed  to  have  been  erected  while  the  Romans  held 
dominion  over  Greece. 

Several  of  the  entablatures  do  not  appear  to  have  been  formed  with  the 
same  taste  and  judgment  which  is  displayed  upon  the  columns,  bases  and 
capitals,  which  the  Greeks  so  universally  exercised  in  the  other  orders. 

The  Romans  adopted  this  order  from  the  Greeks,  and  it  at  once  became 
a  favorite  with  them,  which  they  employed  in  almost  all  their  public  build¬ 
ings.  In  their  hands  it  underwent  many  important  changes.  They  added 
a  modillion  of  the  cornice,  of  a  very  rich  character,  and  other  new  members 
to  the  bed  mould,  and  their  architects  appeared  to  have  vied  with  each 
other  in  embellishing  the  mouldings,  and  many  of  the  flat  surfaces  of  the 
entablature,  with  costly  and  beautiful  sculpture. 

The  column  and  capital  of  this  example  do  not  materially  differ  from 
those  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  examples  5  but  in  the  entablature,  an 
intermediate  course  has  been  adopted,  it  being  somewhat  more  embellished 
than  the  Grecian,  and  much  less  so  than  the  Roman. 

The  addition  of  the  modillion  and  other  new  members  to  the  bed  mould, 
by  the  Romans,  made  the  height  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  height  of 
the  cornice.  Sir  William  Chambers  very  properly  makes  three  divisions 
of  a  cornice,  viz :  the  corona,  which  predominates  and  is  principal  in  the 
composition,  the  bed  mould,  whose  office  is  to  support  and  give  stability 
to  the  corona,  and  the  crown  mouldings,  which  serve  to  shelter  and  protect 
the  corona  from  falling  water  and  other  falling  bodies.  It  appears,  there¬ 
fore,  that  the  bed  mould  ought  not  to  occupy  so  much  space,  as  the  Roman 
architects  gave  to  it.  In  imitation  of  the  Grecian  practice,  the  modillion 
has  not  been  added  to  this  cornice.  It  is  proposed  to  make  the  column, 
including  base  and  capital,  ten  diameters,  and  the  entablature,  two  and 
three-quarters  diameters,  in  height. 


20 


CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 


Plate  XIV. 

A  second  example  of  the  Corinthian  order,  from  the  Choragic  monument 
of  Lysicrates  at  Athens.  In  this  example,  such  deviations  from  the  origi¬ 
nal  have  been  made,  as  it  was  thought  were  required,  in  order  to  give  it 
a  more  particular  adaptation  to  our  practice.  It  is  proposed  to  make  the 
column  including  the  base  and  capital,  ten  diameters,  and  the  entablature, 
two  and  a  quarter  diameters,  in  height. 

The  channel  which  encircles  the  neck  of  the  column,  and  the  leaves 
which  divide  it  from  the  capital,  in  the  original,  are  omitted  in  this  example, 
because  they  appear  to  have  been  taken  from  the  neck  of  the  Doric  column, 
which  is  decorated  with  the  same  channel,  the  flutes  of  the  shaft  passing 
up  through  it  and  terminating  under  the  annulets  of  the  capital.  The 
original  of  this  capital  is  supposed  to  be  the  most  ancient  of  the  order,  and 
is  unlike  that  of  any  other  example  which  has  been  as  yet  discovered. 
Its  classic  expression  and  admirable  adaptation  to  the  place  which  it  occu¬ 
pies,  have  rendered  it  a  favorite  with  all  the  lovers  of  architecture.  It  will 
be  found  that  I  have  not  followed  the  entablature  of  the  original  in  every 
particular,  especially  in  the  details  of  the  cornice,  some  of  the  mouldings 
of  which  have  received  a  different  size  and  form  of  outline,  but  the  general 
character  and  expression  have  been  faithfully  preserved. 

A  section  of  the  abacus  is  drawn  at  large  and  figured  in  minutes  on 
Plate  III.,  No.  14. 


Plate  XV. 

A  third  example  of  the  Corinthian  order.  This  capital  is  said  to  have 
been  discovered  among  the  fragments  of  the  temple  of  Apollo,  at  Bran- 
chida?,  near  Miletus.  The  fragment,  though  much  defaced  when  found, 
retained  enough  of  its  original  appearance,  to  enable  the  moderns  to  make 
out  all  its  details,  except  the  abacus.  The  graceful  simplicity  of  its  form, 


SS\ 

/  . 

U7 

SSL 

t.v. 

('( JIMXTHIAX  OllDER. 


/y.Jl'/i: 


H'  /irr/ntou  S  - 


CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 


2 1 


the  care,  with  which  it  may  be  wrought,  and  its  adaptation  to  many  situa¬ 
tions  which  come  within  our  practice,  have  induced  me  to  add  to  it  a  column 
and  entablature,  and  recommend  it  for  imitation,  though  I  am  not  aware 
that  it  has  been  used  upon  any  buildings,  ancient  or  modern,  except  the 
temple  above  mentioned.  The  general  proportions  of  the  column  and 
entablature  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  two  preceding  examples.  A 
section  of  the  abacus  is  drawn  at  large  on  Plate  III.,  No.  13,  and  figured 
in  minutes. 


Plate  XVI. 

On  this  Plate  are  six  different  designs  for  antae  capitals.  No.  1,  is 
intended  for  the  antae  to  the  Tuscan  order;  No.  2,  for  the  antae  exhibited 
on  Plate  V.  ;  No.  3,  for  that  of  the  Doric  order;  and  Nos.  4,  5,  and  6, 
for  those  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders.  The  outlines  of  these  capi¬ 
tals  are  drawn  on  a  large  scale  and  figured  in  minutes. 

It  is  not  intended  to  confine  their  use  within  the  limits  mentioned  above ; 
they  may  be  used  with  success  wherever  their  peculiar  form  and  character 
harmonize  with  the  other  parts  of  the  composition. 


Plate  XVII. 

On  this  Plate  are  three  designs  for  antae  capitals,  differing  in  form  and 
richness  of  character  from  those  on  the  preceding  Plate.  The  embellish¬ 
ments  of  No.  1,  are  remarkably  chaste  and  elegant.  They  are  taken  from 
a  Grecian  fragment.  They  are  of  great  value  to  the  carpenter  who  is 
situated  at  a  distance  from  a  carver,  inasmuch  as  they  can  be  wrought  by 
himself.  The  neck  of  No.  2,  is  taken  from  that  of  the  second  example  of 
the  Ionic  order,  and  is  therefore  to  be  used  always  on  the  antae  accom¬ 
panying  that  order ;  it  may  also  be  used  in  any  other  situation,  where  its 
character  will  harmonize  with  that  of  the  surrounding  objects.  No.  3,  is 

6 


09 


CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 


also  of  a  rich  character,  and  is  better  adapted  to  inside  than  to  outside  fin¬ 
ishing,  hut  may  be  used  with  propriety  in  either  case.  The  outlines  of  the 
details  of  these  capitals  are  drawn  on  a  large  scale  and  figured  in  minutes. 

Plate  XVIII. 

On  this  Plate  is  given  an  example  of  the  antae  and  entablature,  copied, 
with  deviations,  from  that  on  the  choragic  monument  of  Thrasyllus  at 
Athens.  Their  details  are  in  themselves  beautiful,  and  are  arranged  with 
such  judgment  and  good  taste,  as  to  give  a  simple  elegance  to  the  whole 
composition.  The  deviations  from  the  original  are  not  very  great;  they  are 
in  the  bed  mould,  architrave  and  capital,  and  in  adding  a  base  to  the  antae. 

A,  shows  a  section  of  the  crown  moulding ;  B,  a  section  of  the  bed  mould ; 
and  C,  a  section  of  the  base  to  the  antae,  all  drawn  on  a  large  scale,  for  the 
purpose  of  exhibiting  the  outline  of  those  mouldings.  This  example  may  be 
drawn  by  diameters  and  minutes,  like  the  orders,  and  the  antae  be  made 
about  eight  diameters  in  height. 


Plate  XIX. 

This  example  of  an  antae  and  entablature  is,  in  character  and  effect, 
Doric,  having  mutules  in  the  cornice,  which  are  so  arranged,  as  to  permit 
the  space  between  them  to  be  decorated  with  rosettes.  The  architrave 
bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  that  of  the  choragic  monument  of  Thrasyllus 
at  Athens,  but  the  outlines  of  its  details  are  quite  different  from  that  example. 
The  capital  is,  in  character  and  effect,  Doric,  though  it  differs  in  its  outline 
from  that  of  any  other  example  of  that  order.  The  crown  moulding  of  the 
cornice  is  singular  in  the  form  of  its  outline.  It  is  so  constructed  as  to 
cause  a  strong  shade  to  be  throw  n  upon  its  lower  surface,  which  relieves 
it  from  the  corona.  The  mutule  is  in  size  and  form  like  that  shown  on 
Plate  VII. 


irc/ion.t  maifod  /rum  rrnfrt  of  ftduwrv 


('AIMTALS 


/'/.MV. 


ANTAE  CAPITALS. 


7V.XV/L 


No  .  2. . 


it  ll' 


ANTAE  &  ENTABLATURE. 


TJ.XV2ZI. 


\.\TAF,  &  ENTABLATURE. 


FJ.XJX. 


(f  M'fii'untt'nSc 


JtNTAE  &  ENTABLATURE. 


JV.XX. 


INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 


23 


A,  shows  a  section  of  the  crown  moulding  and  corona ;  B,  a  section  of 
the  bed  mould ;  C,  one  of  the  architraves ;  D,  a  section  of  the  capital 
figured  in  minutes;  and  F,  shows  the  plancere  inverted. 


Plate  XX. 

The  details  of  this  example  of  an  antae  and  entablature  are  of  a  more 
delicate  character  than  those  of  the  preceding  one ;  and  it  is  therefore 
more  particularly  adapted  to  inside  than  to  outside  finishing,  though  it  may 
be  used  with  success  in  either.  The  elements  of  this  example  are  few  and 
simple,  and  will  produce  a  pleasing  effect,  if  the  situation  in  which  it  is  to 
be  used  be  selected  with  judgment.  The  wreath,  which  adorns  the  frieze, 
is  taken  from  an  example  in  Stuart’s  Antiquities  of  Athens.  This  and  the 
capitals  of  the  antae  partake  of  the  same  simple  character,  and  both  may 
be  wrought  with  the  greatest  ease  by  an  intelligent  carpenter,  if  necessary, 
without  the  aid  of  a  carver.  The  distance  between  the  several  wreaths 
may  be  about  equal  to  the  width  of  the  frieze. 

A,  shows  a  section  of  the  bed  mould;  B,  a  profile  of  the  capital;  and 
C,  a  profile  of  the  base  moulding;  all  of  which  are  figured  in  minutes. 


INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 

Plate  XXI. 

Plate  XXI.  exhibits  an  elevation  of  a  Doric  portico,  with  six  columns 
in  front,  and  also  plans  of  other  examples,  of  which  Nos.  1  and  2,  have 
been  explained  in  the  description  of  the  Doric  order.  The  necessity  is 
there  shown  of  a  systematic  and  harmonious  distribution  of  the  columns 
and  the  details  of  the  entablature.  No.  3,  exhibits  a  plan  of  a  portico, 


24>  INTERCOLUMNIATI  ON  S . 

with  four  columns,  whose  extent  is  thirty-six  feet.  This  extent  is  divided 
into  forty-eight  equal  parts,  each  part  being  equal  to  nine  inches,  and  four 
of  these  parts,  or  three  feet,  are  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  column,  eleven, 
to  the  centre  intercolumniation,  and  ten  and  one-half,  to  each  of  the  other 
two.  These  intercolumniations  require  that  two  triglyphs  should  be 
placed  over  each.  No.  4,  shows  a  plan  of  four  columns,  extending  twenty- 
eight  feet,  six  inches.  That  extent  is  divided  into  thirty -eight  equal  parts, 
and  the  column  made  equal  to  four  of  these  parts,  the  centre  intercolum¬ 
niation,  to  eleven,  and  each  of  the  other  two,  to  five  and  one-half  parts. 
Two  triglyphs  must  be  placed  over  the  centre  intercolumniation,  and  one, 
over  each  of  the  other  two. 

In  common  practice,  when  the  columns  are  much  less  than  three  feet  in 
diameter,  they  cannot  generally  be  placed  nearer  to  each  other  than  those 
of  No.  3,  because  I  he  interval  between  them  would  in  that  case  be  insuffi¬ 
cient  to  enable  a  person  of  large  size  to  pass  between  them  freely.  Take 
for  instance  the  example  of  a  piazza  to  be  erected  in  front  of  a  dwelling- 
house,  whose  columns  are  one  foot  six  inches  in  diameter.  In  that  case, 
the  distance  between  the  columns,  if  set  in  imitation  of  No.  1  or  2,  would 
be  only  two  feet  three  inches,  which  would  be  about  one  half  of  the  breadth 
of  the  windows  of  the  house ;  and  if  they  were  set  in  imitation  of  No.  3, 
the  distance  would  be  four  feet  one  and  a  half  inches,  which  also  would  be 
insufficient.  It  would  be  expedient  therefore,  in  such  a  case,  to  place  three 
triglyphs  over  each  intercolumniation.  It  is  however  to  be  observed,  that 
when  the  intercolumniation  is  so  extended  as  to  admit  three  triglyphs  over 
it,  it  produces  a  lean  and  unsolid  aspect,  by  reason  of  the  numerous  and 
massive  details  of  the  entablature,  which  require  the  appearance  of  frequent 
support.  Hence  the  student  will  perceive  that  this  order  succeeds  better, 
when  wrought  on  a  large  than  on  a  small  scale,  and  it  will  be  well  for  him, 
in  cases  like  the  above,  to  use  one  of  the  other  orders,  in  which  the  same 
nicety  is  not  required  in  placing  the  columns,  as  will  be  perceived  by  the 
following  description. 


1NTERC  OLUMN 1ATIOJNT. 


PJ.XX2. 


PEDESTALS. 


25 


Vitruvius  describes  the  different  intercolumniations  by  the  following 
names,  which  are  still  preserved  by  modern  architects.  Pycnostylos, 
when  the  distance  between  the  columns  is  once  and  one-half  their  diam¬ 
eter;  Systylos,  when  it  is  two  diameters;  Eustylos,  when  it  is  two  and 
one-quarter  diameters  ;  Diostylos,  when  it  is  three  diameters  ;  Araeostylos, 
when  it  is  four  diameters. 

The  wide  range  here  given  for  the  placing  of  columns  will  admonish  the 
student  to  be  circumspect,  in  making  his  selection,  that  the  intercolumnia- 
tion  may  harmonize  with  the  form  and  style  of  the  object  with  which  it  is 
connected. 


PEDESTALS. 

Plate  XXII. 

The  use  of  pedestals  appears  to  have  been  an  innovation  in  the  Grecian 
practice,  and  was  introduced  into  that  country  subsequently  to  the  loss  of 
its  political  independence.  In  the  original  examples  we  find  the  columns 
standing  upon  the  uppermost  of  three  steps,  a  rule,  to  which  the  temple  of 
Theseus  at  Athens  is  believed  to  furnish  the  only  exception. 

The  Romans,  on  the  other  hand,  raised  the  floors  of  their  temples  to  the 
height  of  the  pedestal,  projecting  it  forward,  so  that  the  steps  in  front,  by 
which  the  temple  was  entered,  profiled  against  it.  In  the  ancient  theatres, 
the  inferior  orders  rested  on  steps,  while  the  superior  orders  stood  on  pe¬ 
destals,  which  formed  a  parapet,  and  raised  the  base  of  the  order  sufficiently 
high  to  be  seen  on  a  near  approach  to  the  building,  and  for  the  spectators 
to  lean  over. 

Since  the  Grecian  style  of  architecture  has,  at  the  present  day,  univer¬ 
sally  prevailed  over  the  Roman,  pedestals  are  not  held  in  very  high  estima- 

7 


26 


PEDESTALS. 


tion.  But  though  they  cannot  be  considered  as  a  necessary  appendage  to 
any  of  the  orders,  they  are  nevertheless  so  often  used  with  them,  as  to 
require  some  notice,  as  to  their  proportions  and  their  fitness  for  different 
situations. 

Pedestals  sometimes  supply  the  place  of  a  basement.  They  are  also 
used  for  supporting  colonades,  balustrades,  attics,  &c.  Sir  William 
Chambers  makes  their  height  equal  to  three-tenths  of  the  height  of  the 
column  sustained  by  them.  This  rule  will  generally  be  found  correct ; 
but  cases  may  occur  in  practice,  when  different  proportions  will  be  re¬ 
quired,  in  which  event  all  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  case  must  be 
regarded,  and  the  proportions  of  the  pedestal  so  modified,  as  to  accord  with 
the  architectural  objects  connected  with  it.  Pedestals  should  never  be 
insulated,  though  the  column  supported  by  them  be  so  ;  and  the  dye  should 
never  be  less  than  the  diameter  of  the  base  of  the  column.  When  they  are 
employed  in  balustrades,  the  dye  should  be  equal  to  the  neck  of  the  column, 
or  antae,  over  which  they  stand. 

On  Plate  XXII.  are  exhibited  base  mouldings  and  cornices  for  the 
Tuscan,  Doric  and  Ionic  orders,  all  of  which  are  figured  in  minutes,  the 
length  of  the  scale  being  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  column. 


Plate  XXIII. 

On  Plate  XXIII.,  at  C,  is  exhibited  a  pedestal  which  has  a  base  and 
cornice  extending  along  and  forming  a  part  of  a  balustrade,  showing  the 
balusters  in  their  proper  position  and  distance  from  each  other,  commen¬ 
cing  with  one-half  of  one  baluster,  against  the  edge  of  the  pedestal.  The 
pedestal  is  supposed  to  stand  at  the  eaves  of  the  building  and  directly  over 
a  column  or  a  pilaster,  and  all  its  details,  and  those  of  the  vase  which  it 
sustains,  and  the  balusters  A,  and  B,  should  be  drawn  from  the  same  scale 
of  minutes  with  the  column  and  pilaster. 


FKDESTALS 


/ 7. XXII. 


Tuscan  Dorn-  •  Ionic 


-■  w. ’Boanton Sr 


BALUSTERS  &  VACKS. 


FI.  XX1/T. 


G.W '.Boynton.  Sc 


FRONTISPIECES. 


27 


FRONTISPIECES. 

Plate  XXIV. 

Frontispieces  are  both  useful  and  ornamental,  and  make  an  important 
part  of  the  facade  of  a  building.  They  are  useful,  in  sheltering  the  door 
and  those  who  are  obliged  to  wait  at  it  for  admittance,  and  ornamental, 
if  skill  and  judgment  are  used  in  their  construction.  Care  must  be  taken 
as  to  the  kind  and  quantity  of  the  decorations  employed  upon  them,  that 
they  be  neither  too  profusely  nor  too  sparingly  used,  and  that  they  be  such 
as  to  harmonize  with  the  other  parts  of  the  front.  The  door  is  usually 
located  in  the  centre  of  the  facade,  through  which  all  must  pass  who  enter 
the  building ;  which  circumstance  subjects  the  frontispiece  to  a  severer 
scrutiny,  than  the  other  parts  of  the  same  front,  and  it  will  therefore  be 
proper  and  expedient  to  give  to  it  a  greater  portion  of  decorations. 

On  this  Plate  is  exhibited  an  example  of  a  frontispiece,  without  side¬ 
lights,  depending  upon  the  glass  over  the  door,  for  the  admission  of  light 
into  the  entry.  In  such  cases,  the  frontispiece  is  apt  to  appear  insufficient 
in  breadth,  particularly,  when  the  front  of  the  building,  where  it  is  located, 
is  of  very  considerable  extent.  The  ample  breadth  given  to  the  jambs,  on 
each  side  of  the  door,  in  this  example,  is  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  that 
defect. 

The  details  of  the  elevation  are  figured  thereon  in  feet  and  inches,  beside 
which,  a  scale  of  feet  and  inches  is  delineated  below  it,  by  which  all  the 
various  parts  may  be  measured.  A,  exhibits  a  plan  of  the  door,  its  jambs 
and  architraves  5  B,  a  section  of  the  door,  the  threshold,  the  impost,  which 
separates  the  door  from  the  window,  and  the  architraves,  also  an  elevation 
of  the  architrave,  jamb  of  the  door,  and  console.  C,  exhibits  the  same  plan 
as  A,  on  an  enlarged  scale ;  D,  the  manner  of  terminating  the  frett  at  its 
upper  extremity. 


28 


FRONTISPIECES. 


Plate  XXV. 

A,  exhibits  an  elevation  of  a  frontispiece,  every  part  of  which  may  be 
measured  by  the  scale  of  feet  and  inches  annexed  ;  B,  an  accurate  plan  of 
all  parts  of  the  frontispiece  ;  C,  a  section  of  the  entablature,  inside  archi¬ 
trave,  capital  to  antae,  impost,  sash,  door  and  threshold,  also  a  side  view 
of  the  antae  or  pilaster,  to  which  the  door  hangs,  and  the  console.  Place 
the  fascia  of  the  capital  to  the  antae,  which  extends  from  antae  to  antae, 
in  a  vertical  line  over  the  greatest  projection  of  the  consoles.  D,  repre¬ 
sents  a  section  of  the  threshold  and  lower  extremity  of  the  door,  on  a  large 
scale,  and  also  the  manner  of  connecting  them,  so  as  to  prevent  the  falling 
water  from  passing  between  them  into  the  house. 

Plate  XXVI. 

On  this  Plate  are  represented  the  plan,  elevations  and  section  of  an 
example  of  a  frontispiece,  which  may  be  measured  by  the  scale  of  feet  and 
inches  on  the  preceding  Plate.  The  antae  and  entablature  may  be  drawn 
from  the  scale  given  on  Plate  XVIII.,  and  the  capital,  from  that  of  No.  1, 
on  Plate  XVII.  The  honeysuckles,  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  cornice, 
are  in  imitation  of  those  similarly  situated  on  the  cornice  of  the  second 
example  of  the  Corinthian  order,  Plate  XIV. 


Plate  XXVII. 

This  Plate  exhibits  the  plans  and  elevations  of  a  frontispiece  of  a  richer 
character  than  either  of  those  preceding,  the  door  being  recessed  a  suffi¬ 
cient  distance  into  the  house,  to  permit  columns  to  be  placed  between  the 
antaes.  This  example  can  be  adopted,  only  when  the  building  is  of  such 
extent,  as  to  require  the  different  portions  of  the  facade  to  be  large  and 


PJ.  XXII 


(!.(*'■  Boynton.  •» 


9 


FRONTISPIECE. 


PI.  XXVII. 


O  W.&oimton  Sc 


I  >E TAILS  . 


!>].  XXV 111. 


FRONTISPIECES. 


29 


strongly  marked  in  character.  The  columns,  entablature  and  antaes  are 
taken  from  the  second  example  of  the  Ionic  order,  Plate  IX. 

Pl  ATE  XXVIII. 

This  Plate  exhibits  sections  of  the  entablature,  door,  architrave,  impost, 
threshold,  &c.  5  also  an  elevation  of  the  antae,  the  panel  between  the 
antaes,  part  of  the  pilaster  between  the  door  and  side-lights,  and  the 
console  and  architrave  over  it.  B,  shows  a  working  plan  of  the  impost 
drawn  at  one-half  of  the  full  size ;  C,  the  bottom  rail  of  the  sash  and  its 
connection  with  the  impost;  D,  a  portion  of  the  door  shut  into  the  rabbet; 
H,  a  front  elevation  of  the  impost;  E,  a  section  of  the  sash  rail;  F,  the 
sill  to  the  sash  frame;  and  G,  the  panel,  a  b ,  shows  the  depth  of  the 
pilaster  adjoining  the  door;  c  d ,  that  adjoining  the  sash. 


Plates  XXIX.  and  XXX. 

On  these  Plates  are  exhibited  the  plans,  elevations,  and  sections  of  a 
portico  of  the  Corinthian  order,  taken  from  the  third  example  of  that  order. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  floor  of  this  portico  has  ample  breadth,  which  is 
obtained,  not  by  a  great  projection  of  the  columns  from  the  building,  but 
by  recessing  the  door  and  side-lights  into  it.  W e  thus  avoid  that  very 
common  fault,  of  projecting  small  porticoes  to  an  improper  distance  from 
the  building,  which  gives  the  portico  an  unstable  appearance,  as  if  a  small 
jostle  would  cause  it  to  totter  and  fall,  arising  from  its  having  no  other 
apparent  support  from  the  building,  than  what  it  obtains  by  butting 
against  it.  But  when  the  door  and  its  appendages  are  recessed  twelve  or 
more  inches  back  from  the  line  of  the  building,  so  that  a  strongly  marked 
shadow  is  produced,  and  the  entablature  and  ceiling  of  the  portico  are 
firmly  united  with  the  building,  the  whole  appears  firm  and  compact.  The 

8 


30 


FRONTISPIECES. 


fault  above-mentioned  is  not  altogether  confined  to  porticoes  of  small 
dimensions,  but  may  be  found  in  some  which  are  extended  the  whole 
breadth  and  height  of  the  building ;  for  instance,  in  those  where  the  antaes 
at  the  angles  of  the  building  project  only  about  three  or  four  inches,  as  is 
commonly  the  case,  and  the  floor  of  the  portico  is  simply  butted  against 
the  building,  in  which  case  they  fail  to  present  that  appearance  of  one 
perfect  whole  which  is  demanded.  This  defect  may  be  avoided  by  giving 
to  the  antaes  a  projection  on  the  side  facing  of  the  columns,  equal,  at  least, 
to  the  diameter  of  the  column. 

Plate  XXXI. 

One  or  more  doors  are  essential  to  every  separate  apartment.  No  door 
can  conveniently  be  made  of  a  less  size  than  two  feet  in  breadth  and  six 
feet  in  height,  that  being  the  smallest  space  through  which  a  man  of  ordi¬ 
nary  dimensions  can  freely  pass ;  nor  ought  the  size  of  a  single  door  to 
exceed  four  feet  six  inches  in  breadth,  and  eight  feet  six  inches  or  nine  feet 
in  height.  When  large  external  doors  arc  required  for  public  buildings, 
they  are  generally  divided  vertically  in  the  centre,  and  made  to  open  in  two 
parts,  and  if  they  are  so  high  as  to  cause  too  great  an  opening  in  that  direc¬ 
tion,  they  are  also  divided  horizontally,  and  the  upper  part  being  made 
stationary,  the  lower  opens  in  two  parts  as  before.  No  fixed  rule  is 
applicable  to  the  proportion  of  doors.  They  should  be  proportioned 
according  to  the  uses  for  which  they  are  intended.  In  a  room  seventeen 
feet  wide,  by  twenty-three  or  four  feet  long,  and  twelve  and  one-half  feet  in 
height,  the  doors  should  be  about  three  feet  three  inches  wide,  and  about 
seven  feet  nine  inches  high.  When  sliding  doors  are  used,  they  should 
have  something  more  than  twice  the  breadth  of  the  other  doors  in  the  same 
room,  and  be  two  feet  higher,  depending,  in  that  respect,  upon  the  height 
of  the  room,  and  upon  the  ornaments  used  to  decorate  them. 


FR(  )NTrsri  ECE. 


/v.xx/x. 


o  I  V  Boynton  Jo 


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TTTTF 


FRONTISPIECES. 


31 


On  this  Plate  are  exhibited  two  designs  for  doors,  intended  for  inside 
finishing.  The  details  of  each  are  figured  thereon  in  feet  and  inches.  The 
architrave  of  No.  1,  is  taken  from  No.  9,  on  Plate  XLI. ;  and  that  of  No. 
2,  from  No.  6,  on  the  same  Plate.  The  sculpture  on  each  of  these  archi¬ 
traves  may  and  ought  to  be  left  off,  when  the  finish  of  the  room  is  of  such 
a  character  as  not  to  require  it. 

Pl  ATE  XXXII. 

On  this  Plate  are  exhibited  a  pair  of  sliding  doors,  with  a  scale  of  feet 
and  inches  annexed.  The  architrave  and  its  decorations  are  drawn  to 
match  those  of  No.  2,  on  Plate  XXXI.,  but  on  an  extended  scale,  both 
of  them  being  intended  for  the  same  room. 

Plate  XXXIII. 

On  this  Plate  is  an  example  designed  for  a  suit  of  doors  extending  across 
the  room.  They  are  designed  to  slide  up  into  the  room  above  them,  until 
entirely  concealed  by  the  entablature,  leaving  nothing  to  divide  the  two 
rooms  except  the  antaes. 

This  kind  of  communication  between  two  rooms,  will  often  be  found 
very  convenient,  particularly  in  hotels,  where  it  may  sometimes  be  desirable 
to  use  the  two  rooms  as  a  dining  room.  In  such  a  case,  the  table  will  be 
set  in  the  centre,  and  the  waiters  will  pass  between  the  two  side  antaes. 

A,  shows  a  section  of  antaes,  doors,  and  weights  by  which  the  doors  are 
hung,  also  a  scale  of  feet  and  inches,  by  which  any  part  of  this  design  may 
be  measured. 

The  entablature  is  taken  from  the  example  of  an  antae  and  entablature 
on  Plate  XX. 


3  2 


WINDOWS. 


Plate  XXXIV. 

On  this  Plate  are  exhibited  three  different  examples  of  mouldings  and 
paneling  for  doors,  and  three  also  for  shutters,  all  of  which  are  drawn  at 
full  size  for  practice,  representing  a  section  of  each  moulding  and  a  part 
of  the  style  and  panel  of  each  example,  and  also  the  method  of  connecting 
the  style,  panel  and  moulding. 


WINDOWS. 

Plate  XXXV. 

This  Plate  exhibits  various  sections  of  the  sash  frames,  shutters,  &c.  for 
the  finish  of  two  windows.  No.  1,  shows  a  section  of  the  finish  of  a 
window,  the  shutters  of  which  are  designed  to  fold  against  the  wall ; — 
a,  represents  the  architrave ;  b,  the  grounds ;  c,  the  jamb  casing  5  d,  face 
casing  to  the  sash  frame  and  back  lining;  e  e,  the  shutters ;  /,  the  hanging 
style ;  g ,  the  pulley  style  to  the  sash  frame ;  h,  the  face  casing  ;  k ,  the 
parting  bead  ;  j,  the  moulding  to  the  sash  frame ;  in,  the  head ;  l ,  the  style 
of  the  sash;  i  i ,  weights.  No.  2,  is  nearly  the  same  with  No.  1,  the 
principal  difference  consisting  in  the  shutters,  in  tl\e  former  folding  into  the 
wall,  and  therefore  requiring  to  he  made  thicker  than  in  the  latter  case. 
No.  3,  shows  a  section  of  the  bottom  rail  to  a  sash  and  a  sash  bar.  No. 
4,  shows  a  top  rail  and  sash  bar,  with  a  moulding  differing  from  that  of 
No.  3.  No.  5,  shows  the  meeting  rails  of  the  sash,  and  the  method  of 
connecting  them  together.  The  last  three  examples  are  drawn  one-half 
their  full  size,  and  Nos.  1  and  2,  on  a  scale  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  to 
one  inch. 


i 


IV  frcn/itsn  ,f«: 


WINDOW. 


n.xixvj. 


o.  //'  Jfoonton.  Sc 


WINDOWS . 


PI.  JX  WIT 


x„.  i\ 


PEDIMENTS. 


33 


Plate  XXXVI. 

This  Plate  exhibits  a  front  and  side  elevation  of  a  window  extending 
down  to  the  floor.  Its  architrave  and  decorations  are  similar  to  those  of 
door  No.  2,  on  Plate  XXXI.,  and  are  intended  for  the  same  room. 

Plate  XXXVII. 

On  this  Plate  are  the  elevations  of  two  windows,  showing  the  internal 
finish  of  each.  The  plan  of  No.  1,  will  be  found  at  No.  2,  on  Plate 
XXXV.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  window  is  finished  with  a  panel  under 
it,  in  the  common  way,  and  the  architrave  and  sculpture  attached  to  it  are 
intended  to  match  those  of  the  door  No.  2,  on  Plate  XXXI.  No.  2, 
shows  an  elevation  of  plan  No.  1,  on  Plate  XXXV.,  the  shutters  of  which 
fold  upon  the  wall.  The  architrave,  and  tablet  over  the  window,  are 
without  mouldings. 

Plate  XXXVIII. 

On  this  Plate  are  exhibited  the  sections  of  the  window  sills,  bottom  rail 
to  the  sash,  bead  to  the  sash  frame,  hack  with  its  bead,  cap  of  the  sash 
frame,  top  rail  to  the  sash,  soffit,  architrave  grounds,  &,c.  It  also  shows 
an  elevation  of  the  shutters,  sash  frame,  &c.,  all  drawn  on  a  scale  of  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  to  an  inch,  and  figured  in  inches. 


PEDIMENTS. 

The  beauty  of  the  pediment  depends  very  much  upon  the  relative  pro¬ 
portion  of  its  base,  to  its  vertical  height  or  pitch.  The  ancient  Greek 
pediments,  which  surmounted  the  temples  and  porticoes,  were  generally 

9 


34 


PEDIMENTS. 


of  a  very  low  pitch.  That  of  temple  of  the  Theseus,  was  about  one- 
eighth  of  its  base  line.  That  of  the  Ionic  temple,  situated  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Ilissus,  and  that  of  the  Doric  portico,  were  each  about  one-seventh, 
and  that  of  the  temple  of  the  Winds,  about  one-fifth.  It  appears,  from  a 
comparison  of  these  examples,  that  a  ratio  existed  between  the  extension 
of  the  base,  and  the  height  of  the  pediment. 

Suppose  the  base  of  a  pediment  to  be  twelve  feet,  and  its  pitch  one- 
eighth  of  the  same,  or  eighteen  inches.  If  we  deduct  from  the  pitch  the 
depth  of  the  inclined  cornice,  very  little  remains  for  the  vertical  height  of 
the  tympanum  of  the  pediment;  and  therefore  a  pitch  of  one- fifth  would  be 
preferable  in  this  case.  But  suppose  the  base  to  be  extended  to  fifty  feet, 
and  the  pitch  to  be  one-fifth  or  ten  feet.  This  height  would  give  to  the 
pediment  too  much  consequence,  making  that  a  principal  in  the  composition 
which  should  be  subordinate,  its  office  being  to  protect  and  shelter  the 
building  which  sustains  it ;  in  the  latter  case,  therefore,  one-eighth  would 
be  preferable. 

Plate  XXXIX. 

On  this  Plate  are  exhibited  the  plan  and  elevations  of  a  French  window. 
It  is  divided  vertically  in  the  centre,  and  opens  in  two  parts,  like  doors. 
When  it  is  of  a  sufficient  height  to  permit  the  top  lights  to  be  made  a 
fixture,  it  will  be  advisable  to  divide  it  horizontally,  making  the  meeting 
rails,  in  that  case,  like  the  meeting  stiles. 

Plate  XL. 

This  Plate  exhibits  the  details  of  a  French  window,  the  subject  of  the 
preceding  Plate. — a,  at  Xo.  1,  shows  a  section  of  the  cap  to  the  sash 
frame;  6,  part  of  the  soffit;  d ,  window  cap;  c,  top  rail  to  the  sash ;  e, 
bottom  rail ;  f,  a  piece  of  cast  iron,  screwed  to  the  under  surface  of  the 
rail ;  g ,  another  piece  of  cast  iron,  screwed  to  the  window  sill,  the  upper 


ARCHITRAVES. 


35 


surface  of  which  coincides  with  the  under  surface  of  f.  It  must  be 
observed  that  the  projection  of  this  moulding,  at  n,  must  not  be  equal  to 
that  of  o,  at  the  bottom  of  the  rabate,  between  the  meeting  stiles,  shown  at 
No.  2 ;  in  order  that  the  water  driving  into  and  passing  down  the  rabate, 
which  otherwise  might  be  forced  by  the  wind  into  the  house,  may  fall  at 
a  little  distance  before  n ,  to  the  window  sill,  /i,  shows  the  window  sill ; 

the  plinth  ;  a,  on  No.  2,  shows  the  section  of  the  jamb  to  the  sash  frame; 
6,  that  of  the  sash  stile ;  c  and  c,  meeting  stiles  to  sash.  These  details 
are  all  drawn  at  one-half  their  full  size. 


ARCHITRAVES. 

Plate  XLI. 

No  member  of  the  orders  is  more  in  use  than  the  architrave.  Doors, 
windows,  niches,  arcades,  &c.  are  all  more  or  less  indebted  to  it  for  their 
dressings.  It  is  therefore  highly  important  that  its  proportions  should  be 
adapted  to  the  place  which  it  occupies,  and  that  it  should  accord  with  the 
finish  of  the  rest  of  the  apartment.  The  following  rule  has  been  adopted 
by  some  authors,  to  determine  the  breadth  of  architraves.  Make  the 
breadth  of  the  architrave  equal  to  that  which  would  be  required  in  the 
entablature  of  a  column,  of  the  same  height  with  the  aperture,  around 
which  the  architrave  is  employed. 

Another  rule,  more  generally  practised,  is  to  make  the  breadth  of  the 
architrave  one-sixth  part  of  that  of  the  aperture.  But  both  of  these  rules 
will  require  to  be  varied  in  many  situations.  For  instance,  if  the  door  is 
three  feet  wide,  one-sixth  of  this,  or  six  inches,  would  be  a  good  propor¬ 
tion  ;  but  by  the  same  rule,  a  pair  of  sliding  doors,  seven  feet  four  inches 
wide,  in  the  same  room,  would  have  an  architrave  about  fourteen  and  six- 


36 


STUCCO  CORNICES. 


tenths  inches  wide,  which  would  be  a  proportion  altogether  inadmissible. 
In  such  a  case,  one-tenth  of  the  breadth  of  the  door  would  be  a  proper 
proportion. 

These  examples  are  drawn  one-half  the  full  size  for  common  practice. 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  are  single,  and  Nos.  5,  6,  and  7,  double  architraves. 
Nos.  8,  9,  and  10,  are  what  is  called  pilaster  architraves. 

Plate  XLII. 

On  this  Plate  are  six  designs  for  base  mouldings,  differing  in  form,  but 
not  much  in  size.  They  are  drawn  one-half  the  full  size  for  practice,  each 
part  being  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  If  they  are  drawn  from  a  common  two 
foot  rule,  calling  one-fourth  of  an  inch  one  part,  a  suitable  size  for  common 
practice  will  be  produced. 


STUCCO  CORNICES. 

Plate  XLIII. 

The  object  of  these  cornices  is  ornament,  and  is  obtained  only  where 
their  size  and  form  are  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  extent  and  character 
of  the  apartment,  in  which  they  are  placed.  In  all  other  cases,  the  money 
expended  upon  them  is  wasted ;  and  care  should  therefore  he  used  that 
they  he  not  defective  in  this  particular. 

The  following  simple  rule,  which  makes  the  height  of  the  cornice  a 
certain  portion  of  the  height  of  the  room,  will  serve  to  assist  the  judgment ; 
but  circumstances  will  often  occur,  requiring  some  deviation.  If  the  room 
in  which  either  of  the  examples  of  Nos.  1,  or  2,  are  to  be  employed,  be 
eleven  feet  in  height,  make  the  height  of  either  example  equal  to  nine- 
tenths  of  an  inch,  for  every  foot  in  the  height  of  the  room,  or  nine  and 


AROUTKAVES 


f‘Z  A'LI. 


f'  if  />•')  n/o/f  Jr 


o  JJ' fi*  neen  Sc 


EAVE  CORNICES. 


37 


nine-tenths  inches.  In  a  room  of  the  same  height  exclusive  of  the  frieze, 
the  height  of  either  of  the  examples  3,  4,  and  5,  might  be  four-tenths  of  an 
inch  to  each  foot  in  that  of  the  room,  or  four  and  four- tenths  inches. 


EAVE  CORNICES. 

Pl  ATE  XLIV. 

Eave  Cornices  are  not  only  ornamental,  but  useful  5  for  while  they  serve 
to  crown  and  protect  the  building,  the  gutters  placed  in  them  receive  the 
water  which  falls  upon  the  roof,  and  carry  it  to  a  point  whence  it  may 
descend  to  the  ground. 

A  frieze  may  be  added  to  the  upper  surface,  where  a  sufficient  space  is 
left  between  the  cornice  and  top  of  the  window  to  admit  it  without  the 
appearance  of  being  crowded  ;  and  in  this  case,  the  windows  lighting  the 
attic  may  be  so  concealed  by  the  frieze,  as  to  appear  ornamental,  by  dec¬ 
orating  their  front  with  the  frett,  or  enclosing  them  with  the  wreath. 

The  most  difficult  thing,  in  relation  to  these  cornices,  is  to  determine  a 
correct  proportion  for  them  in  the  various  situations  in  which  they  may  be 
required.  The  nature  of  the  surface,  on  which  the  building  stands,  the 
extent  of  the  front,  the  character  of  the  building,  and  many  other  circum¬ 
stances,  often  require  in  practice  a  deviation  from  any  regular  rule.  It  is 
obvious  that  a  cornice  of  a  suitable  size  for  a  tower  twenty-five  feet  square, 
and  sixty  feet  high,  will  not  be  large  enough  for  a  building  of  the  same 
height,  but  with  the  sides  extended  to  one  hundred  feet.  I  have  given 
below  a  kind  of  table,  by  which  the  depths  of  cornices  on  buildings  from 
eighty  to  a  hundred  feet  may  be  obtained,  subject  to  such  corrections  as  a 
regard  to  the  observations  above  made  upon  the  subject  may  require. 

10 


38 


CONSOLES. 


Suppose  it  be  required  to  obtain  the  depth  of  a  cornice,  situated  at  a 
height  of  fifteen  feet.  Make  the  cornice  twenty-fortieths  of  an  inch  for 
each  foot  in  that  height,  or  seven  and  thirty-five  fortieths  inches. 

The  following  table  may  be  used  in  other  cases. 


Height  of  building,  20  ft.  inches  per  foot,  or  9£g  inches. 

“  “  25  ft. 

(  f 

“  11  finches. 

“  “  30  ft. 

e  c 

“  12Jg  inches. 

“  “  40  ft. 

tc 

“  16  inches. 

“  “  50  ft. 

n 

“  18£g  inches. 

“  “  60  ft.  ^ 

cc 

“  21  inches. 

“  “  70  ft.  fg 

a 

“  22J#  inches. 

"  “  80  ft.  *£ 

t  < 

“  24  inches. 

CONSOLES. 

Plates  XLV.  and  XLVI 

This  ancient  and  highly  ornamented  member  of  architecture  seems  to 
have  been  neglected  in  all  the  late  practical  works  on  this  subject,  with  the 
exception  of  one  example,  very  beautiful  and  richly  decorated,  taken  from 
the  great  door  of  the  Grecian  temple,  Erechtheus,  at  Athens.  This  how¬ 
ever  is  not  adapted  to  our  every  day  practice,  in  its  form,  decorations,  or 
expense  of  execution.  I  have  therefore  presented  several  examples  of  the 
console  which  accord  with  the  fashion  of  the  day,  differing  from  each  other 
in  form  and  decorations,  beginning  with  these  the  most  simple,  and  ending 
with  others  highly  ornamented.  I  have  taken  care  to  arrange  the  sculpture, 
in  such  a  manner  that  three  of  these  examples  may  be  cut  by  a  common 
carpenter,  without  the  aid  of  a  carver.  D,  on  Plate  XLV.,  exhibits  a  side 
view,  and  C,  across  section  of  Fig.  1,  taken  from  A  to  B;  E,  represents 


tiff /loyn/t/n  St 


yy.iz/// 

/> 


CENTREPEICE 


\7'/ 


SHOP  FRONTS 


//  X /.{'/// 


OWJfqyntotv  Sc. 


\ 

CONSOLES. 


39 


a  side  view  ;  and  F,  a  cross  section  taken  from  A  to  B,  on  Fig.  2.  No. 
3,  on  Plate  XLVI.,  exhibits  a  side  view  ;  and  No.  4,  a  cross  section  of 
No.  2.  No.  6,  shows  a  side  view  of  No.  5;  and  No.  7,  a  cross  section 
taken  from  A  to  B.  No.  1,  is  a  vertical  section  of  No.  5. 

Plate  XLVII. 

This  Plate  contains  an  example  of  a  centre  piece,  figured  in  inches. 
No.  2 ,  represents  a  section  of  the  mouldings  and  frett,  which  encircles  the 
flower  in  the  centre.  They  are  drawn  at  one-half  their  full  size,  and  figured 
in  parts. — a ,  is  in  a  line  with  the  ceiling  of  the  room  ;  and  c,  in  a  line  with 
the  centre  piece. 

The  lower  part  of  this  Plate  contains  three  examples  of  fretts,  one  for  a 
gniloche,  and  one  for  a  leaf  ornament,  all  of  which  will  be  handsome  when 
suited  to  the  place  which  they  occupy.  The  shaded  parts,  a,  6,  c,  d,  e, 
are  sections  of  the  figures  against  which  they  are  respectively  drawn. 

Plate  XLVIII. 

This  Plate  exhibits  a  design  for  a  shop  front,  suitable  for  either  town  or 
country.  The  pilaster  and  entablature  may  be  made  of  stone  or  wood, 
according  to  the  taste  or  convenience  of  the  proprietor. 

The  small  windows  between  the  capitals  of  the  pilasters  are  intended  to 
be  secured  with  a  frett,  made  of  iron,  instead  of  shutters,  so  that,  if  the 
shop  should  take  fire  in  the  night  time,  the  accident  may  be  more  easily 
discovered,  by  the  light  shining  through  these  windows ;  and  in  the  same 
manner,  a  robber  might  perhaps  be  detected,  if  he  should  enter  the  shop  in 
the  night  for  plunder,  and  use  a  lantern  for  his  purposes.  The  doors  may  be 
recessed  so  far  back,  as  to  show  the  whole  thickness  of  the  pilaster ;  but  it 
will  be  wise,  in  order  to  show  the  goods  within  to  the  best  advantage,  to 
place  the  window  in  such  a  position,  that  the  front  surface  of  the  shutter, 
when  closed,  may  be  in  the  same  place  with  the  front  of  the  pilasters. 


-to 


STAIRS. 


STAIRS. 

Every  building,  consisting  of  more  than  one  story,  is  indebted  to  this 
portion  of  architecture  for  ornament,  as  well  as  utility.  The  height, 
breadth,  and  length  of  the  steps,  should  he  proportioned  to  the  situation 
and  use  for  which  they  are  constructed.  This  remark,  however,  is  subject 
to  this  qualification,  that  the  height  should  never  exceed  eight  inches,  nor 
the  breadth  fifteen  inches.  Every  workman  is  supposed  to  have  a  sufficient 
knowledge  of  all  kinds  of  stairs,  except  those  on  a  circular  plan.  The 
method  most  practised,  of  forming  the  circular  part  of  the  rail  without  a 
cylinder,  is  comparatively  of  recent  date.  To  the  ingenious  Peter  Nichol¬ 
son,  of  London,  we  are  all  indebted  for  this  method.  It  was  invented  by 
him  and  published  in  the  year  1792,  and  since  that  time  it  has  wonderfully 
extended  itself  into  practice.  In  the  year  1795,  I  made  the  drawings  and 
superintended  the  erection  of  a  circular  stair-case  in  the  State  House  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  which,  I  believe,  was  the  first  circular  rail  that  was 
ever  made  in  New  England.  This  rail  was  glued  up  round  a  cylinder,  in 
pieces  of  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick.  Since  the  first  discovery  of 
the  true  principles  of  hand  railing,  3Ir.  Nicholson  has  made  several  impor¬ 
tant  improvements,  for  one  of  which,  about  seventeen  or  eighteen  years 
since,  the  Society  of  Arts  in  London  awarded  him  a  gold  medal.  This 
improvement  renders  the  subject  the  most  simple  and  direct  of  any  of  his 
methods.  I  have  therefore  adopted  it  as.my  model  here,  with  some  trifling 
deviations. 


Plate  XLIX 

This  Plate  exhibits  two  examples  for  scrolls,  which  terminate  the  lower 
extremity  of  hand  rails  ;  one  of  a  curtail  step,  and  one  of  a  ncwell. 

In  order  to  describe  the  scroll,  Fig.  1,  make  a  circle  of  three  and  one- 


STAIRS. 


41 


half  inches  in  diameter,  as  is  shown  by  dotted  lines.  To  illustrate  this  sub¬ 
ject  in  a  clear  and  distinct  manner,  the  circle  is  repeated  on  a  larger  scale 
at  No.  2.  Divide  the  circle  in  the  centre  by  the  horizontal  line  a  o  b;  draw 
the  vertical  line  o  e;  divide  o  e  into  three  equal  parts  at  c,  d ,  e ;  through  the 
point  c  draw  6  c  5,  parallel  to  a  b.  Divide  c  d  into  three  equal  parts  at /, 
g,  h ,  and  make  c  6  equal  to  o  f.  Then  from  the  point  6,  and  through  the 
centre  o,  draw  the  diagonal  line  6  o  4,  and  intersect  it  at  right  angles  by 
another  diagonal  line  passing  through  the  centre  o,  and  cutting  6  5  at  5. 
At  right  angles  with  6  5,  draw  5  4,  cutting  6  o  4  at  4 ;  and  parallel  with  6 
5,  draw  4  3,  cutting  5  o  3  at  3.  Draw  3  2  parallel  to  5  4,  cutting  6  o  4  at 
2 ;  and  2  1  parallel  to  6  5,  cutting  5  o  3  at  1  ;  which  completes  the  six 
centres  on  which  the  scroll  is  drawn.  We  will  now  return  to  Fig.  1.  On 
the  centre  1,  with  the  radius  1  j,  drawy  i  ;  on  the  centre  2,  with  the  radius 
2  i,  draw  i  h  $  on  3,  with  the  radius  3  h,  draw  h  g  ;  on  4,  with  the  radius 
4  g ,  draw  g  f ;  on  5,  with  the  radius  5  f,  draw  f  e\  on  6,  draw  e  d  ;  which 
completes  the  outside  circle.  The  inside  line,  and  also  those  of  the  nosing 
of  the  steps,  are  drawn  from  the  same  centres. 

To  draw  the  face  mould,  No.  1,  the  rail  is  supposed  to  be  glued  to  the 
scroll  at  the  line  8  11.  A,  exhibits  the  pitch  board  ;  c  6,  the  base  line ;  and 
a  b}  the  raking  line.  Divide  from  d ,  the  beginning  of  the  twist,  to  b ,  into 
any  number  of  parts,  making  one  intersect  the  edge  of  the  rail  at  8,  and 
another  at  11.  Then  draw  these  lines  across  the  pitch  board  to  the  raking 
line  a  b.  At  right  angles  with  a  b ,  continue  them  across  the  face  mould, 
No.  1.  From  the  line  a  6,  make  each  of  the  lines  3,  5,  7,  9,  10,  and  11, 
equal  to  the  corresponding  lines  from  the  line  d  b ,  to  the  edge  of  the  rail  3, 
5,  7,  9,  10,  and  11.  Make  also  1  2,  3  4,  5  6,  and  7  8,  in  No.  1,  respec¬ 
tively  equal  to  d  2,  3  4,  5  6,  and  7  8,  on  Fig.  1.  Then  through  the  points 
1,  3,  5,  7,  9,  10,  and  11,  and  also  through  the  points  2,  4,  G,  and  8,  trace 
the  curves  ;  and  the  face  mould  is  completed. 

Fig.  2,  exhibits  a  curtail  step  drawn  from  the  same  centres  as  that  of  the 
rail.  B,  shows  the  edge  of  the  riser ;  C,  a  block  glued  to  both  step  and 

11 


42 


STAIRS. 


riser ;  D  and  E,  keys  by  which  the  riser  is  made  fast  and  drawn  home  to 
the  step.  The  dotted  lines  represent  the  nosing  of  the  step. 

To  draw  the  falling  mould,  No.  5,  let  a,  b  and  c,  he  the  angles  of  the 
pitch  hoard.  Produce  the  base  line  c  b ,  to  d  ;  make  c  d  equal  to  the  stretch¬ 
out  of  the  scroll  on  Fig.  1 ;  from  d,  around  to  /,  set  up  the  depth  of  the  rail, 
which  is  supposed  to  he  two  inches,  to  the  line  f  g  e.  Then  divide  a  g  and 
g  e,  each  into  a  like  number  of  equal  parts,  and  form  the  curve  by  the  inter¬ 
section  of  lines.  The  curve  of  the  lower  edge  may  be  obtained  by  gaging. 

Fig.  3,  exhibits  another  method  of  describing  a  scroll  of  two  revolutions, 
the  beginning  and  termination  of  which  arc  given. — a ,  represents  the  com¬ 
mencement,  and  i,  the  termination.  Divide  i  a  into  two  equal  parts  at  l ; 
subdivide  i  l  into  one  more  part  than  the  number  of  revolutions  required,  in 
this  case  into  three  parts.  Make  (he  square  in  the  centre  equal  to  one  of 
those  parts,  and  construct  it  like  that  at  No.  4,  which  is  drawn  on  a  large 
scale.  Then  on  1,  in  the  square,  and  with  the  radius  i  a,  draw  the  quad¬ 
rant  a  b.  On  2,  and  with  the  radius  2  b ,  describe  b  c  ;  on  3,  with  the 
radius  3  c,  describe  c  d  ;  on  4,  describe  d  e;  on  5,  describe  e  f;  on  6, 
describe  f  g,  on  7,  describe  g  h ;  and  on  S,  describe  hi;  which  com¬ 
pletes  the  outside  line.  That  of  the  inside  is  drawn  by  the  same  centres. 

It  is  evident  by  the  dotted  lines  representing  the  straight  part  of  the  rail  at 
k  l  and  m ,  that  four  scrolls  of  unequal  sizes  may  be  obtained  by  this  example. 

Fig.  4,  exhibits  an  example  of  a  newell,  drawn  on  a  large  scale  and  fig¬ 
ured  in  parts.  Its  size  is  supposed  to  be  six  inches  at  the  base.  Each  part 
would  therefore  be  equal  to  one-half  of  an  inch.  "Where  there  is  not  a  suf¬ 
ficient  space  in  the  entry  that  can  be  conveniently  spared,  this  newell  will 
be  found  a  good  substitute  for  the  scroll. 


Plate  L. 

To  find  all  the  moulds  which  are  necessary  for  the  completion  of  a  stair 
rail  standing  over  a  circular  plan,  as  exhibited  at  Fig.  1,  we  proceed  as 
follows : 


/'/.  .r>< 


STAIRS. 


43 


Make  a  b ,  No.  2,  equal  to  the  height  of  the  winders.  Draw  a  e  and  b /, 
at  right  angles  a  b ;  make  c  a  and  b  /,  each  equal  to  the  developement 
of  e  a,  Fig.  I ;  draw  e  x  and  d  k ,  each  equal  to  the  height  of  one  step,  and 
parallel  to  a  b  ;  make  x  l  and  f  d,  each  equal  to  the  breadth  of  one  step, 
and  join  e  Z,  e  f  and  /  k.  Make  e  t  equal  to  e  Z,  and  f  s  equal  to  f  k. 
Then  form  the  curves,  or  easoffs,  by  the  intersecting  of  lines,  or  by  pro¬ 
ducing  lines  at  right  angles  from  the  rail,  as  represented  by  the  dotted  lines 
u  and  v ,  until  they  meet,  and  their  junction  will  be  the  centre  for  describing 
the  curve.  The  breadth  of  the  falling  mould  is  generally  about  two  inches ; 
a  line,  therefore,  about  one  inch  above  the  one  here  described,  and  another 
at  the  same  distance  below,  will  complete  the  falling  mould. 

Construction  of  the  Face  Mould ,  No.  3. 

Let  A  D  E  F  G  H  I,  be  the  plan  of  the  rail,  and  E  F,  G  H,  a  portion 
of  the  straight  part;  I,  being  the  upper,  F,  the  lower,  and  D,  the  middle 
resting  points.  Make  the  stretchout  of  A  D,  equal  to  that  of  D  F.  In 
the  figure  of  the  falling  mould,  produce  the  base  a  e,  to  f  a  e  then  being 
equal  to  the  developement  of  A  E  ;  make  a  d  equal  to  the  developement  of 
A  D,  and  e  f  equal  to  E  F.  Draw  f  l  parallel  to  a  6,  and  cutting  the 
upper  side  of  the  falling  mould  at  Z ;  parallel  to  f  «,  draw  Z  i,  cutting  a  b 
at  i ;  in  i  Z,  make  i  d  equal  to  I  D  ;  draw  d  m  parallel  to  a  b ,  cutting  the 
upper  side  of  the  falling  mould  at  m  ;  draw  m  n  parallel  to  f  a,  cutting 
a  b  at  n ;  and  d  r  parallel  to  a  b ,  cutting  m  n  at  r.  Join  o  r,  and  produce 
it  to  meet  i  l  at  q ;  make  I  Q,  equal  to  i  q  ;  join  F  Q,,  and  produce  F  Q, 
to  K.  Through  G,  draw  K  L,  perpendicular  to  K  Q, ;  through  I,  draw 
I  Z,  parallel  to  K  Q,,  cutting  K  L  at  Z  ;  make  Z  Z,  equal  to  a  o,  and 
join  K  Z.  Then  produce  K  Z,  to  L,  and  draw  A  L  L,  parallel  to  Z  Z. 

To  find  the  Face  Mould. 

Draw  L  A  perpendicular  to  K  L ;  make  L  A  equal  to  L  A,  Z  I  equal 
Z  I,  and  join  A  I.  Then  A  I,  will  form  the  part  of  the  face  mould  repre- 


44 


STAIRS. 


scntcd  by  1  A,  on  the  plan.  Draw  K  F  perpendicular  to  K  L,  and  make 
K  F  equal  to  K  F.  Draw  G  G  parallel  to  Z  Z,  cutting  K  L  at  G,  and 
join  G  F.  Again  draw  II  U  parallel  to  Z  Z,  and  cutting  K  L  at  U ; 
draw  U  II  perpendicular  to  K  L,  and  make  U  II  equal  to  U  H.  Draw 
II  E  parallel  to  G  F,  and  F  E  parallel  to  G  H  5  then  E  F  G  II,  will 
form  the  part  of  the  face  mould  corresponding  to  the  straight  part  E  F  G  II 
on  the  plan.  The  intermediate  points  of  the  face  mould,  which  form  curves 
of  the  outside  and  inside  of  the  rail,  are  thus  found.  Through  any  point 
C,  in  the  convex  side  of  the  plan,  draw  C  Y,  parallel  to  Z  Z,  cutting  K  L 
at  Y  ;  and  in  the  concave  side  of  the  plan  at  T,  draw  Y  C,  perpendicular 
to  K  L  ;  and  Y  C,  make  Y  T  equal  to  Y  T,  and  Y  C  equal  to  Y  C. 
Then  T,  is  a  point  in  the  concave  side,  and  C,  a  point  in  the  convex  side 
of  the  face  mould.  A  sufficient  number  of  points  being  thus  found,  the 
curved  parts  of  the  face  mould  may  he  drawn  by  hand,  or  by  a  slip  of 
w  ood  bent  to  the  curve.  No.  5,  exhibits  a  face  mould  for  the  upper  half 
of  the  rail,  which  is  constructed  in  the  same  manner  with  the  one  just 
described. 


How  to  apply  the  Face  Mould  to  the  Flank. 

Let  a  b  i  gf  No.  4,  he  the  figure  of  the  face  mould,  placed  in  due  posi¬ 
tion  to  the  pitch  line  K  L,  as  when  traced  from  the  plan.  X,  represents 
the  upper  side,  Y,  the  edge,  and  Z,  the  under  side  of  the  plank,  from  w  hich 
the  rail  is  to  he  taken.  Draw'  g  L,  perpendicular  to  the  outside  of  the 
plank.  Make  the  angle  g  L  K,  on  the  edge  of  the  plank,  equal  to  the 
angle  K  L  L,  No.  3;  and  the  angle  g  L  K,  on  the  under  side  of  the 
plank,  equal  to  the  angle  G  Z  I,  No.  3.  Make#  L,  equal  to  L  K,  and 
draw-  the  chord  g  i,  in  the  plane  Z,  parallel  to  the  arris  line  5  and  then 
apply  the  points  g  and  i,  of  the  face  mould,  to  the  line  as  exhibited  in  the 
figure,  and  draw  the  form  of  the  face  mould. 

Fig.  2,  exhibits  a  section  of  a  hand  rail,  drawn  one-half  of  the  full  size. 
On  II,  with  the  radius  II  A,  describe  the  half  circle  C  A  D,  and  divide 


CHIMNEY  PEICES 


n.  z/ 


<r 


I 


G  H'./SOVftff'n  JY 


CHIMNEY-PIECES. 


45 


it  into  three  equal  parts.  Draw  B  1,  and  B  2 ;  divide  A  B,  into  four 
equal  parts ;  draw  3  i,  parallel  to  D  C,  and  cutting  B  2,  at  i ;  draw  i  l, 
parallel  to  B  I,  and  equal  to  one  and  one-half  of  the  four  divisions  between 
A  and  B ;  on  i,  with  the  radius  i  2,  describe  2  m ;  and  on  Z,  with  the 
radius  l  m,  describe  m  n,  and  draw  n  o. 


CHIMNEY-PIECES. 

Pl  ATES  LI.  AND  LII. 

A  fire-place  is  necessary  in  all  apartments  where  artificial  heat  is  re¬ 
quired  5  but  the  size  varies  according  to  the  quantity  of  heat  required,  and 
the  kind  of  fuel  which  is  used.  In  a  common  sized  room,  of  sixteen  by 
nineteen  feet,  which  is  to  be  heated  with  wood,  the  distance  between  the 
jambs  should  be  about  three  feet  four  inches,  by  two  feet  eight  inches  in 
height ;  if  heated  by  bituminious  coal,  the  distance  should  be  three  feet  two 
inches,  by  two  feet  eight  inches  in  height ;  and  three  feet  by  three  feet,  if 
the  room  is  heated  with  anthracite  coal.  As  much  less  smoke  is  produced 
by  anthracite  coal  than  by  other  kinds  of  fuel  in  common  use,  it  will  be 
well  to  profit  by  that  circumstance,  in  extending  the  height  of  the  fire-place, 
so  that  a  greater  portion  of  the  heat  may  pass  into  the  room. 

The  chimney-piece,  or  the  finish  about  the  fire-place,  should  be  adapted 
to  the  use  and  convenience,  and  be  made  to  accord  with  the  architectural 
finish,  of  the  apartment  in  which  it  is  located.  Care  should  be  taken  that 
the  pilasters  do  not  project  much  in  front  of  a  line  with  the  jambs,  because 
any  considerable  projection  of  this  kind  will  obstruct  the  hot  air  in  its 
passage  into  the  room.  For  this  reason  columns  are  objectionable.  They 
are  also  objectionable  on  other  accounts.  Two  columns  standing  at  a 

distance  of  eight  diameters  from  each  other,  cannot  be  considered  beautiful 

12 


46 


CHIMNEY-PIECES. 


or  in  good  taste;  particularly,  when  we  consider  that  their  diameter  will 
not  exceed  six  inches,  which  renders  all  the  mouldings  small  and  indistinct, 
and  destroys  the  expression  which  the  orders  bear  when  executed  on  an 
extended  scale.  They  also  diminish  the  breadth  of  the  room,  in  that  part 
of  it  which  is  most  useful ;  for,  if  a  table  be  placed  in  the  room,  it  occupies 
the  part  before  the  fire,  and  so  too,  do  those  who  are  sitting  by  the  fire. 
Thus  nothing  is  gained  by  the  use  of  columns,  while  much  is  lost.  In 
forming  pilasters  for  a  chimney-piece,  make  that  edge  which  joins  the  jamb, 
project  one  and  a  quarter  inches,  and  the  other  edges,  six  inches,  by  re¬ 
ceding  the  breast  of  the  chimney  to  a  projection  of  ten  inches  from  the 
wall,  instead  of  the  usual  projection  of  sixteen  inches.  By  this  expedient, 
the  shelf  will  be  ten  inches  in  width,  four  inches  of  which  will  project  over 
the  frieze,  and  six,  lay  upon  the  projection  of  the  fire-place. 

It  is  common  in  this  part  of  the  country,  for  gentlemen  who  build  houses 
for  their  own  occupation,  to  select  such  chimney-pieces  as  suit  their  own 
fancy ;  and  their  choice  often  falls  upon  those  which  most  abound  in  finery, 
such  as  different  colors  of  marble,  the  addition  of  a  tablet  to  the  frieze,  and 
a  profusion  of  unmeaning  mouldings  on  both  tablet  and  frieze. 

It  should  be  recollected,  that  the  largest  piece  of  marble  which  can  be 
placed  in  a  chimney-piece  is  of  but  small  dimensions,  and  that,  if  of  good 
proportions  and  well  wrought,  it  is  beautiful  in  itself,  and  should  be  deco¬ 
rated  with  a  sparing  hand.  What  is  called  decoration,  ceases  to  be  such 
when  misplaced.  Decoration  is  subordinate  in  the  composition,  and 
should  be  made  for  the  place  which  it  is  to  occupy,  and  not  the  place  for 
the  decoration. 

On  Plates  LI.  and  LII.,  are  four  designs  for  chimney-pieces,  which 
may  be  wrought  in  marble,  wood,  or  any  other  material  desired.  If  made 
of  wood,  it  will  be  well  to  paint  them  black,  in  imitation  of  marble  of  that 
color.  In  this  case,  let  the  paint  be  properly  rubbed  down  and  nicely 
varnished,  and  a  good  imitation  will  be  produced. 


CHIMNEY  PEICES 


/V.  LZZ. 


IVAl.mXY  RAILINGS  &  WINDOW  GUARDS  . 


/V.  //// 


I, AMI’S  A  I  AMI’STA M  )S 


di - 'lb 

w 


PJ.  IV. 


CAST  IRON.— VERANDAS. 


47 


CAST  IRON. 

Plates  LIII.,  LIV.,  LV.,  LVI. 

A  few  Plates  may  be  usefully  employed,  we  presume,  upon  this  subject. 
The  fact,  that  cast  iron  is  produced  in  most  parts  of  this  country,  and 
at  a  cost  so  low  as  to  place  it  within  the  reach  of  all,  the  great  amount  of 
its  yearly  consumption,  and  the  facility  with  which  it  may  be  wrought  into 
the  most  beautiful  shapes,  render  it  an  object  worthy  of  attention  here. 
We  have  accordingly  given  examples  of  balconies,  railings,  window  guard 
irons,  stair  railings,  lamps,  and  lamp  stands,  brackets,  gates,  verandas,  and 
many  other  examples,  comprising  the  numerous  and  diversified  figures 
required  in  common  practice.  Pains  have  been  taken  to  arrange  and 
classify  the  numerous  figures  into  convenient  groups,  so  that  no  section 
shall  exceed  a  proper  size  for  one  casting,  and  to  join  sections  in  such 
places  that  their  appearance  or  stability  will  not  be  injured. 


VERANDAS. 

Plate  LV. 

This  Plate  contains  two  designs  for  verandas,  drawn  on  a  scale  of 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  to  a  foot.  They  may  be  made  either  of  cast,  or 
malleable  iron. 


48 


VASES.— CHURCHES. 


VASES. 

Plate  LVII. 

On  this  Plate  are  five  different  designs  for  vases,  the  details  of  which 
have  been  carefully  selected  from  the  best  antique  examples,  making  such 
deviations  in  their  form  and  arrangement,  as  was  supposed  would  best 
adapt  them  to  the  practice  of  the  day.  It  is  believed  that  their  forms 
possess  a  simple  elegance,  which  they  will  retain,  though  their  ornaments, 
from  motives  of  economy  or  taste,  should  be  omitted.  The  height  and 
projection  of  the  different  members  are  figured  parts. 

When  used  for  the  termination  of  pedestals  and  the  like,  their  large 
diameter  should  not  exceed  that  of  the  die  of  the  pedestal,  nor  be  less  than 
three-fourths  of  it. 


CHURCHES. 

Pi  .ates  LVIII.,  LIX. 

On  these  Plates  are  exhibited  plans  and  elevations  of  a  church,  which 
measures  fifty-four  feet  in  front,  and  eighty-four  feet  in  flank.  It  contains, 
on  the  first  and  gallery  floors,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  pews,  in  which 
about  eight  hundred  persons  may  be  comfortably  seated.  Should  it  be 
desirable  to  reduce  to  fifty  feet,  this  may  be  done  without  making  the 
symmetry  of  the  building,  by  shortening  each  pew  one  foot.  Tho  upper 
and  lower  tiers  of  windows  arc  inclosed  by  the  same  architraves,  leaving 
the  space  which  separates  the  lower  from  the  upper  tier,  recessed  back  six 
inches  from  the  face  of  the  architrave.  By  this  expedient,  the  awkward 


VKI’A.XDAllS 


/’/.  /M 


/'///// 


r 

_ T* 

L 

\ 

'C~ 


I/S 


plan  fora  cm: nr ii.  fj.iv/// 


Gallerv'. 


Principal  Floor. 


-  .  ■  ’ 


Si  d/e  o/' /  't-rt 


PJ.Z/X. 


6  Wltayntvn  J\  • 


PULPIT  . 


/V.  /.I'. 


A. 


/.'II 


o  irfioyn/o/i  Sr. 


PEWS. 


49 


dueed  by  the  gallery  passing  across  the  centre  of  the  windows,  is  avoided, 
while  the  correct  proportion  of  their  external  appearance  is  preserved.  The 
expression  produced  by  the  simple  massive  forms  composing  these  elevations 
will  be  in  accordance  with  those  devotional  feelings,  which  will  naturally  arise, 
in  a  building  devoted  to  the  worship  of  the  Supreme  Being.  It  is  intended 
that  the  interior  finish  of  the  building  should  accord  with  the  exterior.  The 
ceiling  may  be  gently  curved  upwards,  and  divided  into  deep  sunken  panels. 
The  ceiling  under  the  galleries  must  be  ten  feet  high  from  the  floor  at  the 
front,  and  incline  upwards  toward  the  wall,  so  as  to  leave  a  sufficient  space 
for  the  architrave  to  pass  over  the  windows.  That  part  of  the  front  of  the 
galleries,  which  is  between  the  columns,  may  be  trussed  with  iron  trusses,  in 
the  same  manner  as  is  shown  on  Plate  LXV.  On  Plate  LX.,  are  a  plan  and 
elevation  of  a  pulpit  suitable  for  this  building. 


PEWS,  &  c . 

Plate  LXI. 

Figs.  1,  2,  and  3,  are  three  examples  of  block  ornaments,  intended  to  be 
placed  where  the  architraves  abutt,  at  the  angles  of  the  doors  and  windows. 
The  centres  of  the  elevations  of  each  are  respectively  decorated  with  a 
honey-suckle,  and  a  sculptured  and  a  turned  rosette.  No.  4,  represents  a 
section  of  the  latter  block  and  turned  rosette,  drawn  at  full  size.  No.  7, 
represents  an  end  elevation  of  two  pews,  showing  the  paneling  and  capping 
on  the  doors  and  piers.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  places,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  this  elevation,  w'here  the  risers,  the  seats,  and  the  partition  between 
the  pews  are  situated.  This  elevation  is  drawn  on  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  a 
foot.  No.  5,  shows  a  section  of  the  capping  on  the  doors ;  No.  6,  the 
capping  on  the  partition  between  the  pews,  drawn  full  size  for  practice. 

13 


50 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  CARPENTRY. 

Plate  LXII. 

By  the  theory  of  carpentry,  the  artisan  is  taught  the  nature,  quality,  strength, 
and  stiffness  of  those  materials,  which  he  is  obliged  to  use  in  the  course  of  his 
occupation,  also  the  numerous  and  complicated  strains,  to  which  they  are 
exposed,  and  the  remedies,  by  which  these  strains  can  be  effectually  overcome. 

It  is  therefore  of  great  importance  to  the  practical  carpenter,  that  he  acquire 
a  sufficient  knowledge  of  this  science,  to  enable  him  to  give  the  due  propor¬ 
tions  of  the  various  pieces  of  timber  and  other  materials  which  compose  the 
roofs  and  other  parts  of  buildings.  This  information  is  furnished  by  the 
results  of  various  experiments,  made  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
different  strains  which  different  sizes  of  those  materials  can  bear,  by  several 
scientific  gentlemen  of  Europe.  Of  course,  these  experiments  were  made 
on  European  timber.  We  therefore  must  make  proper  allowances  for  the 
difference  of  timber.  Different  individuals  have  arrived  at  different  results 
in  their  experiments.  We  cannot,  therefore,  put  implicit  confidence  in  any 
of  them  ;  but  taking  them  collectively,  and  making  proper  allowances  for 
difference  in  timber,  we  may  assist  our  judgment  and  obtain  correct  views  on 
the  subject. 

The  principal  strains  to  which  timbers  and  other  materials  are  exposed, 
are  the  following: 

First,  that  strain  by  which  a  beam  is  drawn  in  the  direction  of  its  length. 
The  strength  by  which  the  beam  resists  this  strain,  is  called  its  cohesion. 
The  experiment,  by  which  the  cohesive  power  of  a  beam  or  stick  of  known** 
dimensions  is  ascertained,  is  easily  performed  in  the  following  manner.  The 
stick  is  suspended  vertically  bv  one  extremity,  and  to  the  lower  extremity  are 
attached  weights,  which,  being  increased  until  the  stick  breaks,  thus  determine 
its  cohesive  power.  To  this  strain,  king  posts,  tie  beams,  &.c.  are  liable. 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  CARPENTRY. 


51 


The  second  strain,  is  when  the  load  tends  to  compress  the  beam  in  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  its  length.  To  this  strain,  truss  beams,  pillars,  struts,  &c.  are  exposed. 

The  third  strain,  is  when  the  load  tends  to  break  the  beam  across.  This 
is  called  a  cross  or  transverse  strain.  To  this  strain  all  kinds  of  bearing 
timbers  are  liable. 

The  following  list,  which  gives  the  cohesive  strength  of  several  beams  and 
bars,  an  inch  square,  is  taken  from  one  made  by  Mr.  Emerson.  The  rod  of 
cast  iron  is  taken  from  the  experiments  of  Rennie.  The  amount  placed 
opposite  each  kind,  expresses  its  cohesive  strength,  or  the  weight  which  will 
be  required  to  break  it,  when  drawn  in  the  direction  of  its  length. 


Iron  Rod,  an  inch  square,  will  bear,  . 

.  .  76,400  pounds. 

Cast  Iron,  “  “ 

.  18,656 

Brass,  “  “ 

.  35,600 

Hempen  Rope,  “  “ 

.  19,600 

Ivory,  “  " 

15,700  “ 

Oak,  Box  and  Plum-tree,  “ 

7,850 

Elm,  Ash  and  Beech,  “ 

6,070 

Walnut  and  Plum,  “ 

5,360 

Red  Fir,  Holley  and  Crab,  “ 

5,000 

Cherry  and  Hazel,  “  . 

4,760  “ 

Alder,  Asp,  Birch  and  Willow,  “ 

4,290 

Lead,  “ 

430 

It  is  also  given  as  a  practical  rule  by  Mr.  Emerson,  that  a  cylinder  whose 

diameter  is  six  inches,  will  carry,  when  loaded 

to  one-fourth  of  its  absolute 

strength,  as  follows.  Iron,  135  cwt. ;  Good  Rope,  22  cwt.  ;  Oak,  14  cwt. ; 

Fir,  9  cwt. 

By  these  experiments  we  see  what  an  immense  load  a  rod  of  one  inch 
square  is  capable  of  suspending.  And  we  likewise  see  that  this  strain  is  not 
likely  to  be  overrated  in  practice. 

Suppose  it  required  to  know  the  weight  that  an  oak  joist,  of  three  by  four 
inches,  will  sustain.  Multiply  the  depth  by  the  breadth  of  the  joist  in  inches  ; 


52 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 


and  that  product,  which  is  twelve,  Ivy  the  number  of  pounds  set  against  oak 
in  the  table,  7,850.  The  product,  94,200  pounds,  is  the  answer. 

We  now  come  to  the  second  strain,  that  of  compression  in  the  direction  of 
the  length.  But  few  experiments  on  this  strain  have  been  made,  and  the 
results  of  those  few  do  not  agree.  It  is  maintained  by  some  writers  that  the 
resistance  to  compression  is  about  equal  to  that  of  extension ;  but  the  ex¬ 
periments  of  Du  Hamel  on  cross  strain,  seem  to  prove  that  the  resistance  to 
compression  is  not  more  than  two-thirds  of  that  to  extension.  It  is  however 
fortunate  for  the  practical  workman,  that  this  strain  is  not  often  overrated  ; 
for  it  rarely  happens  in  practice  that  a  body  employed  to  sustain  a  heavy  load 
is  found  insufficient  for  that  purpose. 

According  to  Mr.  Rondelet’s  experiments  on  cubic  inches  of  oak,  it  required 
from  5,000  to  6,000  pounds  to  crush  a  piece  of  that  size  ;  and  under  this 
pressure  its  length  was  reduced  more  than  one-third. 

Mr.  Rennie’s  experiments  produced  results  considerably  lower.  A  cubic 
inch  of  elm  was  crushed  by  1,284  pounds;  American  pine,  by  1,606  pounds; 
and  English  oak,  by  3,860  pounds. 

We  now  come  to  the  cross  strain,  to  which  all  bearing  beams,  joists,  &c. 
are  liable.  The  resistance  to  this  strain  is  much  less  than  that  of  either  of 
the  others. 

A  Table  of  the  Cross  or  Transverse  Strain  of  different  kinds  of  1  Vood,  each  Piece  being  one 
foot  long,  one  inch  broad,  and  one  inch  deep. 


Oak,  ....... 

660  pounds. 

Ash,  ....... 

635 

Beech,  ...... 

677 

Elm,  ....... 

540 

Walnut,  green,  ..... 

487 

Spruce,  American,  .... 

570  “ 

Hard  Pine,  do.  .... 

658  “ 

Birch, . 

517  “ 

Poplar,  Lombard,  .... 

327  " 

Chestnut,  ...... 

450 

OF  CARPENTRY. 


53 


The  above  table  is  selected  from  Tredgold’s  Carpentry.  It  expresses  the 
breaking  weight  of  each  piece.  It  will  not,  therefore,  be  proper  to  per¬ 
manently  load  either  of  the  pieces  with  more  than  one-half  of  the  breaking 
weight.  The  effect  of  this  strain  produces,  on  the  upper  part  of  the  beam, 
a  compression  in  the  direction  of  its  length  ;  and  on  the  under  part,  an 
extension  in  the  direction  of  its  length.  To  illustrate  this  subject  more 
fully,  I  will  here  introduce  some  of  Du  Hamel’s  experiments  on  the  stiffness 
of  beams,  the  results  of  which  ought  to  be  well  understood. 

Du  Hamel  took  six  bars  of  willow,  three  feet  long  and  one  and  one-half 
inches  square.  After  suitable  experiments,  he  found  that  they  were  broken  by 
525  pounds,  on  an  average.  Six  bars  were  next  cut  through  with  a  saw,  one- 
third  of  the  depth  from  the  upper  surface,  and  each  cut  was  filled  with  a 
wedge  of  dry  oak,  inserted  with  a  little  force.  These  were  broken  by  551 
pounds,  on  an  average.  Six  other  bars  were  broken  through  by  542  pounds, 
on  an  average,  after  being  cut  half  through  and  filled  up  in  a  similar  manner. 
Six  other  bars  were  cut  three-fourths  through,  and  broken  by  the  pressure  of 
530  pounds,  on  an  average.  A  baton  was  then  cut  three-fourths  through,  and 
loaded  until  nearly  broken.  It  was  then  unloaded,  and  a  thicker  wedge  was 
introduced  tightly  into  the  cut,  so  as  to  straighten  the  bar  by  filling  up  the 
space  left  by  the  compression  of  the  wood.  In  this  state  the  bar  was  broken 
by  577  pounds. 

From  these  experiments,  we  perceive  that  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
thickness  of  a  beam  contributes  nothing  to  its  strength.  And  here  we  also 
see,  that  the  compressibility  of  this  kind  of  strain  appears  much  greater  than 
its  dilatability,  which  circumstance  greatly  increases  its  power  of  withstanding 
a  transverse  strain. 

We  see  likewise  that  gains  may  be  cut  from  the  upper  surface  of  a  beam 
’downwards,  to  one-third  or  one-half  of  the  depth,  and  joists  inserted  tightly 
therein,  without  reducing  the  strength  of  the  beam.  Observe,  however,  that 
the  size  of  the  joists  is  not  reduced  by  shrinkage.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  in  all  the  experiments  made  for  ascertaining  the  resistance  to  pressure, 

14 


54 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 


the  strength  of  the  beam  is  found  to  be  as  the  breadth  and  square  of  the 
depth  directly,  and  inversely  as  the  length.  The  strength  of  a  beam  therefore 
depends  chiefly  on  its  depth,  or  rather  on  that  dimension  which  is  in  the 
direction  of  the  strain.  If  a  beam  two  inches  deep  and  one  broad,  support  a 
given  weight,  another  beam  of  the  same  depth  and  double  the  breadth  will 
support  double  the  weight.  But  if  a  beam  two  inches  deep  and  one  inch 
broad,  support  a  given  weight,  another  of  four  inches  deep  and  one  inch  broad 
will  support  four  times  the  weight.  Hence,  beams  of  equal  breadths  are  to 
each  other  as  the  square  of  their  depths.  Again,  if  a  beam  of  a  given  cross 
section  and  one  foot  long  support  a  known  weight,  another  beam  of  the  same 
cross  section  but  two  feet  long  will  support  only  half  the  known  weight. 

Buffon’s  experiments,  which  were  made  on  large  scantlings,  and  were 
therefore  free  from  those  irregularities  unavoidable  on  small  specimens,  would 
seem  to  show  that  the  strength  diminishes  in  a  ratio  greater  than  the  inverse 
proportion  of  the  length.  Both  reason  and  experience  seem  to  confirm  the 
truth  of  these  experiments. 

A  simple  arithmetical  rule,  derived  from  these  experiments,  is  therefore 
given,  by  which  the  breaking  weight  of  any  scantling,  the  breadth,  depth  and 
length  being  given,  may  be  known.  Divide  the  breaking  weight  by  the 
length  in  feet;  subtract  10  from  the  quotient;  multiply  the  remainder  by  the 
breadth,  and  that  product  by  the  square  of  the  depth,  both  expressed  in 
inches.  The  result  is  the  greatest  load  in  pounds. 

For  example.  Required  the  resistance  of  a  spruce  joist,  17  feet  long,  12 
inches  in  depth,  and  2  inches  in  breadth.  The  breaking  weight  placed  against 
spruce  in  the  above  list  is  570.  Divide  570  by  17,  the  length  in  feet,  and  you 
have  33  for  the  quotient,  nearly.  Subtract  10  from  33,  and  the  remainder  is  23. 
This  remainder  being  multiplied  by  2,  the  breadth  in  inches,  the  product  is  46. 
Multiply  this  product  by  144,  the  square  of  the  depth  in  inches,  (the  square 
of  any  number  being  obtained  by  multiplying  it  by  itself,)  and  you  have  6,624 
for  the  answer.  I  have  left  out  the  fractions  in  the  above  operation,  knowing 
that  any  deviation  which  makes  the  result  smaller,  is  on  the  safe  side. 

Ans.  6,624. 


OF  CARPENTRY. 


55 


Required  the  resistance  of  a  hard  pine  beam,  20  feet  long,  12  inches  in 
depth,  and  10  inches  in  breadth.  Ans.  31,680. 

We  must  recollect,  that  all  the  experiments,  from  which  the  above  results 
are  obtained,  were  made  on  wood  of  the  most  perfect  kind,  free  from  knots, 
shakes,  spots,  or  rot,  and  not  cross-grained,  &c.  Every  practical  workman 
knows,  that  in  roofs,  floors,  or  any  other  piece  of  framing  of  any  considerable 
magnitude,  such  perfection  in  timber  cannot  be  expected.  It  will  be  wise  in 
him,  therefore,  to  make  all  due  allowance  for  imperfections  in  timber. 

If  a  floor  of  a  dwelling-house  be  loaded  with  people,  to  which  it  is  always 
liable,  the  load  is  then  equal  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  on  each 
square  foot ;  we  therefore  see  that  the  floor  of  a  room  of  twenty  by  seventeen 
feet,  must  be  capable  of  resisting  a  pressure  of  40,800  pounds. 

The  bearing  weight  of  one  of  these  joists  (supposing  them  to  be  of  spruce) 
is  obtained  as  follows.  The  breaking  weight  of  spruce  is  570.  Divide  570 
by  the  length  of  the  joist,  which  is  17  feet,  and  you  obtain  33  feet,  nearly, 
(for  I  leave  out  the  decimals.)  Deduct  10  from  33,  and  the  remainder  is  23. 
Multiply  23  by  2,  the  breadth  of  the  joist,  and  you  obtain  46.  Multiply  46 
by  the  square  of  the  depth  of  the  joist,  which  is  144,  and  you  obtain  6,624, 
which  is  the  breaking  weight ;  and  the  breaking  weight  of  the  20  joists, 
collectively,  which  are  in  the  floor  (I  call  each  of  the  trimmers  equal  to  two 
common  joists)  is  132,480  pounds.  And  they  contain  680  feet  of  timber, 
board  measure. 

We  will  now  see,  in  the  same  manner,  what  the  resistance  to  pressure  is, 
of  a  floor  framed  in  the  common  way,  with  a  beam  lying  longitudinally 
through  the  centre  of  the  room,  twelve  inches  square,  and  filled  up  on  each 
side  with  joists  four  by  four  inches.  The  breaking  weight  of  the  beam,  if 
of  spruce,  is  31,104  pounds.  In  this  calculation,  I  do  not  allow  any  diminu¬ 
tion  in  the  strength  of  the  beam,  on  account  of  the  gains  cut  into  it,  because 
if  the  joists  are  tightly  pressed  into  the  gains  and  prevented  from  shrinking, 
the  beam  will  not  be  weakened.  31,104  pounds  is  one-half  of  the  ultimate 
strength  of  the  floor.  Double  this  sum,  and  you  have  62,208  for  the  ultimate 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 


56 

strength  of  the  whole  floor.  It  requires  602  feet  of  timber,  board  measure,  to 
complete  this  floor.  By  this  calculation,  we  see,  that  with  the  same  quantity 
of  timber  in  the  wide  joist  floor,  we  have  more  than  double  the  strength  that 
is  obtained  by  a  beam  and  joist  floor. 

If  a  church  be  made  of  wood,  and  without  a  gallery,  it  is  common  to  frame 
the  sides  with  a  girt,  placed  about  midway  between  the  plate  and  the  sill. 
The  posts  and  girts  in  this  case  cannot  be  less  than  ten  inches,  and  the  studs 
four  by  four  inches.  Let  us  suppose  a  building,  fifty  feet  long  and  twenty- 
five  high,  to  be  framed  in  this  way.  The  mortice  made  in  the  middle  of  the 
post  cannot  be  less  than  two  inches,  and  the  pin-holes,  which  pass  through 
the  tenon  of  each  girt,  than  two  inches  more.  The  tenon  and  pin-holes 
reduce  the  solid  part  of  the  post  to  eight  inches,  and  even  less  ;  for,  in  taking 
the  square  of  the  depth,  it  must  be  taken  in  two  parts  ;  first,  from  the  face 
of  the  post  to  the  mortice,  two  inches,  the  square  of  which  is  four,  and  the 
remaining  part  of  the  post  beyond  the  mortice  is  six  inches,  the  square  of 
which  is  thirty-six,  which  with  the  four  added  makes  forty ;  whereas  the 
square  of  eight  is  sixty-four. 

If  these  posts  be  of  spruce,  the  bearing  weight  of  each  will  be  3,840,  and 
collectively  15,360.  Double  this  sum,  and  we  have  30,720  pounds,  which 
is  the  ultimate  resistance  to  any  strain  to  which  the  whole  side  of  the  house 
is  liable.  The  greatest  force  produced  by  the  wind  on  a  vertical  wall  is  equal 
to  forty  pounds  on  a  square  foot.  It  will  therefore  be  unsafe  not  to  afford  a 
resistance  fully  adequate  to  overcome  that  strain.  The  posts,  girts  and  studs, 
will  contain  2,083  feet,  board  measure.  We  will  now  suppose  this  facade  to 
be  framed  with  spruce  studs,  twenty-five  feet  long,  two  inches  thick,  and 
eight  inches  deep.  The  breaking  weight  of  one  is  1,944,  and  of  thirty- 
seven,  the  number  required  to  complete  the  side,  71,928  pounds,  which  is  the 
ultimate  strength  of  the  whole  side;  and  they  contain  altogether  1,354  feet, 
board  measure. 

These  principles  may,  with  great  advantage,  be  applied  to  all  framed 
houses,  whether  large  or  small. 


OF  CARPENTRY. 


57 


Suppose  it  be  required  to  execute  the  frame  of  a  common  sized  house, 
two  stories  in  height,  the  studs  ten  feet  long,  the  sills,  plates  and  posts, 
each  seven  inches  square,  and  the  girt  seven  inches  thick  and  twelve  inches 
wide,  which  width  seems  to  be  required  on  account  of  the  floor  being  of 
the  same  depth.  We  will  now  suppose  the  studs  to  be  two  inches  thick 
and  seven  wide,  instead  of  four  by  four  inches,  the  common  size.  It  is 
manifest  that  studs  are  not  liable  to  any  strain,  in  the  direction  parallel  to 
the  side  of  the  building  on  which  they  are  situated.  Two  inches  is  there¬ 
fore  quite  a  sufficient  thickness,  in  this  respect ;  and  so  in  any  other 
thickness,  which  is  capable  of  receiving  and  retaining  the  nails,  by  which 
the  outside  covering  is  fastened  to  the  studs.  When  the  studs  are  short 
and  the  building  small,  the  thickness  may  be  reduced  one  and  a  half 
inches ;  but  in  this  case,  care  should  be  used  in  driving  the  nails  into  the 
studs ;  for,  if  they  be  driven  in  a  straight  line,  the  stud  will  be  liable  to 
crack,  and  weaken  the  hold  of  the  nails.  The  breadth  of  the  stud  being 
the  same  as  that  of  the  girts  and  plates,  the  two  latter  rest  firmly  on  the 
heads  of  the  studs,  and  are  thus  prevented  from  canting  or  settling ;  but  if 
the  studs  were  of  the  usual  size,  say  four  by  four  inches,  the  girt  would 
project  three  inches  over  them,  and  this  being  in  the  place  where  the  joists 
are  tenoned  into  the  floor,  the  whole  weight  of  the  floor  would  of  course  be 
thrown  upon  this  unsupported  part  of  the  girt,  and  a  settlement  inevitably 
caused  on  that  edge.  A  stud  two  inches  thick,  seven  inches  wide,  and  ten 
feet  long,  will  resist  a  pressure  of  four  thousand  and  eight  pounds,  making  a 
difference  of  more  than  one-third  in  favor  of  the  two  by  seven  inch  studs. 

If  one  and  a  half  inches  should  be  thought  a  sufficient  thickness  to  retain 
the  nails  of  the  outside  covering,  it  would  resist  a  pressure  of  three  thousand, 
four  hundred  and  fifty-two  pounds.  The  width  of  the  studs  may  be 
reduced,  and  still  be  amply  strong;  for,  since  the  greatest  pressure  on  the 
vertical  side  of  a  wall  is  forty  pounds  to  each  cubic  foot,  studs  ten  feet 
long,  placed  eighteen  inches  from  each  other,  would  sustain  a  pressure  of 
six  hundred  pounds. 

As  the  girts  are  not  liable  to  any  other  strain  than  that  caused  by 

15 


5S 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 


the  pressure  of  the  floor  downwards,  and  by  the  wind  without,  which  is 
abundantly  resisted  by  the  floor,  they  may  be  reduced  to  six  inches.  If  the 
stud  is  made  one  and  a  half  by  six  inches,  it  will  sustain  a  pressure  of  two 
thousand,  five  hundred  and  thirty-eight  pounds. 

I  now  leave  this  subject,  trusting  that  enough  has  been  shown  respecting 
these  calculations,  to  convince  every  one  of  the  great  advantage  to  be 
derived  by  putting  them  into  practice. 

Plate  LX1I. 

Fig.  1,  exhibits  an  example  of  a  truss  simply  constructed  for  a  roof  of 
thirty  feet  span.  I  shall  describe  the  different  strains  to  which  this  truss  is 
liable,  and  the  best  means  of  resisting  them. 

If  a  load  be  laid  on  the  rafters  of  this  truss,  it  is  evident  that  the  down¬ 
ward  pressure  will  cause  the  heads  of  the  rafters  to  press  hard  against  the 
king  post,  and  the  lower  ends  to  press  equally  hard  against  the  abutment  at 
each  end  of  the  tie  beam.  Therafters  are  thus  strained  by  a  compression 
in  the  direction  of  their  length ;  and  if  no  other  strain  were  to  be  resisted, 
a  stick  of  timber  of  small  dimensions  would  be  sufficient.  But  it  is  evident 
that  a  cross  strain  is  also  to  be  provided  for.  The  latter  strain  must  be 
resisted  by  struts,  and  by  making  the  rafter  of  a  size  equal  to  the  resistance 
of  that  strain.  The  pressure  of  the  rafters  against  the  abutment,  at  each 
end  of  the  tie  beam,  causes  that  beam  to  be  strained  by  an  extension  in  the 
direction  of  its  length ;  and,  moreover,  the  load  laid  upon  this  beam,  and 
the  weight  of  the  ceiling  which  is  suspended  from  the  under  surface,  pro¬ 
duce  a  cross  strain,  which  must  he  resisted  by  suspending  this  beam  by  the 
king  post,  and  by  making  it,  as  in  the  case  of  the  rafters,  of  sufficient  size 
to  resist  the  pressure. 

The  strain  on  the  king  post  is  an  extension  in  the  direction  of  its  length. 
A  small  piece  of  timber  is  therefore  adequate  to  resist  that  strain;  for  vve 
have  seen  that  an  oak  joist  of  three  by  four  inches  is  capable  of  suspending 
94,200  pounds.  The  pressure  of  the  rafters  against  the  head  of  the  post 


CARPENTRY 


//  Y..W 


/r  Tf  'Boynton  ■>>' 


OF  CARPENTRY. 


59 


being  very  great,  they  will  be  apt  to  indent  themselves  into  it,  and  cause  a 
small  settlement  of  the  roof,  unless  the  post  be  made  of  hard  wood.  But 
let  it  be  observed,  moreover,  that  this  part  of  the  king  post  should  be  made 
as  small  as  the  strain  on  it  will  admit ;  otherwise  the  shrinkage  of  the  post 
will  produce  the  same  effect  as  the  indentation  of  the  rafters.  The  strain 
on  the  strut  is  wholly  that  of  a  compression  in  the  direction  of  its  length, 
which  a  small  piece  of  timber  will  be  able  to  resist. 

No.  1,  represents  the  heads  of  the  king  post  and  rafters,  and  their  con¬ 
nection  with  each  other.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  tenon,  which  should 
be  just  long  enough  to  steady  the  heads  of  the  rafters.  No.  2,  shows  the 
foot  of  the  king  post  and  struts,  also  a  side  elevation  of  the  tie  beam,  and 
the  bolt  which  connects  the  tie  beam  of  the  king  post.  No.  3,  shows  the 
end  of  the  tie  beam,  and  the  method  of  its  connection  with  the  foot  of  the 
rafters,  also  a  section  of  the  plate  framed  into  the  tie  beam. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  that  all  bearing  joints  must  be  made  at  right 
angles  with  the  strain,  or  in  other  words,  with  the  upper  side  of  the  rafters. 

Fig.  2,  is  an  example  of  a  section  of  a  roof,  with  iron  queen  posts,  placed 
at  such  a  distance  from  each  other,  as  to  render  the  space  between  them 
useful  for  lodging  rooms,  or  such  ot  her  purposes  as  may  be  desirable.  By 
using  that  material  for  the  queen  post,  instead  of  wood,  the  shrinkage  of 
the  head  of  the  post,  and  the  indentation  of  the  rafters  in  the  same  are 
avoided.  The  additional  expense  cannot  be  an  objection  to  substituting 
iron  for  wood,  as  it  will  not  in  any  important  roof  be  at  all  proportional  to 
the  advantage  to  be  gained. 

Fig.  4,  shows  the  junction  and  connection  of  the  head  of  the  rafter  with 
the  end  of  the  straining  beam,  and  also  a  section  of  the  purloin,  which  is 
notched  down  upon  the  straining  beam,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  It 
shows  also  the  head  of  the  iron  queen  post,  the  dotted  lines  representing 
one  branch  of  it  passing  through  the  rafter,  and  the  other  branch  passing 
through  the  end  of  the  straining  beam.  Fig.  5,  shows  the  method  of  con¬ 
necting  the  strut  to  the  rafter,  and  the  manner  of  notching  the  rafter  to 
receive  the  purloin. 


GO 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 


The  above  details  are  figured  in  inches,  and  are  drawn  on  a  scale  of  one 
inch  to  a  foot. 


Plate  LXIII. 

This  Plate  exhibits  an  example  of  a  roof,  whose  tie  beam  is  forty-four 
feet  in  bearing.  The  queen  posts  are  proposed  to  be  made  of  wood,  their 
smallest  dimensions  being  six  inches  in  front,  and  eight  in  flank.  This 
size  is  sufficient  to  resist  the  greatest  strain  that  can  ever  be  thrown  upon 
them,  though  they  be  made  of  soft  pine.  If  made  of  hard  pine,  or  any  other 
wood  equally  hard  and  strong,  their  size  may  be  reduced  to  five  inches  in 
front,  with  the  same  measure  in  flank.  It  will  be  wise  to  reduce  the  heads 
of  these  posts  to  the  smallest  dimensions  which  the  strain  to  which  they  are 
exposed  will  admit,  in  order  to  render  the  shrinkage  as  small  as  possible. 

No.  1,  shows  the  connection  of  the  tie  beam,  the  principal  and  small 
rafters,  and  the  iron  strap  at  the  foot  of  the  principal  rafter.  No.  2,  shows 
a  section  of  the  purloin,  and  the  manner  of  notching  it  to  the  principal 
rafter,  and  the  notching  the  small  rafter  to  the  purloin,  also  the  connection 
of  the  strut  with  the  principal  rafter.  No.  3,  exhibits  the  head  of  the  queen 
post  and  the  principal  rafter,  showing  also  the  end  of  the  straining  beam 
and  a  section  of  the  purloin,  with  the  small  rafter  notched  upon  it.  No.  4, 
shows  the  tie  beam,  the  foot  of  the  king  post  and  strut,  and  the  method  of 
their  connection  with  each  other.  All  these  details  are  correctly  drawn  on 
a  scale  of  one-half  inch  to  a  foot,  and  figured  in  inches.  Fig.  2,  exhibits  a 
section  of  a  roof,  in  which  the  trusses,  for  the  support  of  the  small  rafters, 
are  placed  at  right  angles  with  the  pitch.  ]?y  this  method  of  framing,  a 
larger  space  under  the  rafters  is  rendered  useful,  and  the  roof  is  constructed 
with  more  economy,  while  it  is  equally  safe,  when  the  trusses  do  not 
exceed  thirty  feet  bearing.  I  have  extended  the  trusses  to  fifty  feet  with 
perfect  safety  ;  but  in  this  case  they  were  made  deeper,  and  four  struts 
were  used  instead  of  two. — a,  and  a,  show  the  sections  of  the  lower  truss 
beams,  each  of  which  forms  a  timber  in  floors.  No.  7,  shows  the  method 


('AKl’KXTHY 


/'/  AX777 


6 n'/t Contort 


J'c 


OP  CARPENTRY. 


61 


of  connecting  the  end  of  the  beam  with  that  of  the  strut;  and  No.  8,  the 
upper  end  of  the  strut,  with  the  upper  truss  beam.  No.  9,  shows  a  section 
of  the  upper  truss  beam,  and  its  connection  with  the  rafter. 

Nos.  10,  and  11,  on  Plate  LXV.,  show  elevations  of  the  trusses,  when 
complete,  and  may  with  propriety  be  called  trussed  purloins.  Fig.  1 
exhibits  a  simple  method  of  framing  floors.  This  is  supposed  to  be  the 
floor  of  one  of  two  parlors,  which  are  connected  by  sliding  doors,  and  are 
seventeen  feet  in  width,  and  twenty  feet  in  length.  The  timber  a,  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  under  the  sliding  doors ;  and  b  b,  represent  two  courses  of 
stiffeners,  which  must  be  fitted  in  with  some  force,  taking  care  that  those 
adjoining  the  wall  are  not  forced  so  as  to  press  the  wall  out  its  place.  No. 
2,  shows  a  side  view  of  a  joist  or  beam,  and  the  manner  of  proportioning 
and  forming  the  tenon.  It  is  often  necessary  to  floor  over  the  apartments, 
whose  great  extent  renders  the  common  flooring  insufficient.  I  have  there¬ 
fore  given  here  an  example  of  a  floor,  the  joists  of  which  are  thirty  feet 
bearing.  This  is  fully  adequate  to  sustain  any  pressure  to  which  it  may 
be  liable,  and  by  increasing  the  means  here  shown,  it  may  be  extended  to 
forty  feet  bearing,  with  perfect  safety.  Fig.  3,  exhibits  a  plan  for  this 
floor,  showing  four  joists,  two  inches  thick,  and  thirteen  inches  deep. — a  «, 
and  a  a,  near  each  end  of  the  joists,  show  two  iron  bars,  two  and  a  half 
inches  wide,  and  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  let  down  into  the  joists,  the 
iron  trusses  passing  through  them  midway  between  each  two  of  the  joists. 
These  trusses  are  three-fourths  of  an  inch  square,  and  pass  under  the  two 
ties  b  b ,  and  b  6,  and  are  strained  up  by  turning  a  nut  at  each  end.  The 
ties,  b  b  and  b  b ,  must  be  sufficiently  thick  to  be  notched  up  on  each  side 
of  the  joists,  so  as  to  prevent  them  from  vibrating  when  the  truss  is  strained 
up ;  and  it  will  also  be  necessary  to  put  on  stiffeners  at  /,  /,  f,  and  /,  for 
the  same  purpose.  No.  4,  exhibits  a  side  view  of  a  joist,  with  a  side  view 
of  the  truss  which  passes  under  the  ties  at  c,  and  c,  and  also  the  manner  of 
cutting  in  the  iron  bars,  near  the  ends  of  the  joists,  at  a  a ,  and  a  a.  No. 
5,  shows  the  screw  and  nut  at  the  end  of  the  truss,  on  a  large  scale. 

If  this  floor  is  used  for  common  purposes,  not  more  than  one-third,  or, 

16 


62 


CARPENTRY. 


at  most,  one-half  of  the  trusses  here  shown,  will  he  required  to  render  it 
sufficiently  strong ;  for  we  must  consider,  that  the  strain  on  the  truss  is 
an  extension  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and  therefore  it  is  capable  of 
sustaining  an  immense  weight.  One  course  of  floor  boards,  directly  over 
the  ends  of  trusses,  had  best  he  put  down  with  wood  screws,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  easily  removed,  if  it  should  be  rendered  necessary  by  an  exten¬ 
sion  of  the  trusses  ;  in  which  case,  the  floor  may  be  raised  by  turning  the 
nuts  at  each  end  of  the  trusses. 


CARPENTRY. 

Plate  LXIV. 

This  Plate  exhibits  an  example  of  a  roof,  with  inclined  tie  beams,  so 
arranged,  as  to  admit  an  arched  ceiling  to  rise  up  within  it.  Though  this 
kind  of  roof  is  frequently  employed,  when  necessity  or  economy  make  it 
desirable  to  extend  the  ceiling  up  into  the  roof,  yet  it  will  be  wise  to  avoid 
its  use,  whenever  this  can  be  conveniently  done,  since  its  form  is  such  as 
to  throw  a  great  strain  upon  the  tie  beams  and  king  posts,  thus  requiring 
these  timbers  to  be  very  much  increased  in  size,  over  those  of  the  common 
roof,  which  causes  a  greater  proportion  of  shrinkage  and  indentation  of  the 
timbers,  where  they  are  connected,  and  of  course  a  great  and  sometimes 
fearful  settling  of  the  roof. 

Fig.  1,  shows  an  elevation  of  one  pair  of  rafters,  and  the  manner  of 
forming  and  securing  the  iron  truss  around  the  ends  of  the  tic  beams, 
passing  under  the  iron  plates  at  e  c,  and  extending  up  and  passing  over  at 
the  head  of  the  king  post  at  d.  It  shows  also  the  iron  strap,  connected  at 
the  centre  by  screws,  which  secures  the  tie  beams,  at  their  junction,  from 
sliding  or  settling.  No.  2,  exhibits  the  method  of  connecting  the  foot  of 


CARm'TUY 


/y  /.///// 


p°n 


CARPENTRY. 


63 


the  tie  beam  with  that  of  the  rafter ;  b ,  represents  the  iron  truss  passing 
around  the  foot  of  the  rafter ;  the  dotted  line  at  a,  shows  the  length  of  the 
tenon,  and  at  c,  the  bolt  by  which  the  beam  and  rafter  are  confined  to  each 
other.  No.  3,  exhibits  the  upper  surface  of  the  beam,  fitted  to  receive  the 
rafter.  No.  4,  shows  the  connection  of  the  head  of  the  rafters  with  that  of 
the  king  post.  The  rafters  are  intended  to  be  butted  together,  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing  shrinkage.  No.  5,  shows  the  tie  beams  at  their 
junction,  and  the  manner  of  fitting  the  iron  strap  to  them,  (see  its  plan  at 
No.  9,)  which  will,  if  proper  attention  is  given,  in  setting  up  the  screws, 
prevent  them  from  settling  at  that  place.  No.  6,  gives  a  side  view  of  the 
head  of  the  king  post,  and  a  a ,  sections  of  the  iron  truss  passing  over  it. 
No.  7,  gives  a  side  view  of  the  foot  of  the  king  post,  passing  under  the  tie 
beams,  and  b  6,  the  ends  of  the  iron  strap,  the  same  as  a  a ,  in  No.  5.  No. 
8,  exhibits  the  method  of  forming  a  wrench,  by  which  the  iron  truss  may 
be  strained  up,  if  required,  either  by  shrinkage,  or  by  the  extension  of 
the  truss. 

It  should  be  remembered,  that  the  strain  on  this  roof  is  very  great.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  that  the  materials,  of  which  it  is  constructed,  and  the 
labor  bestowed  upon  it,  should  be  of  the  most  perfect  kind.  The  joints 
should  fit  perfectly  in  every  part.  The  iron  should  be  of  the  best  quality 
and  workmanship,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  the  threads  of  the  screws 
are  sufficiently  large,  and  the  nuts,  which  encircle  them,  of  a  proper  size, 
not  less  in  thickness  than  the  diameter  of  the  body  of  the  screws.  Let  the 
bands,  which  inclose  the  timbers,  be  made  somewhat  thicker,  at  their 
angles,  than  in  other  parts.  And  lastly,  if  shrinkage  or  indentation  of  any 
of  the  joints  of  the  timbers,  or  an  extension  in  the  length  of  any  part  of  the 
iron  work,  should  be  discovered,  let  them  be  immediately  set  up  by  the 
screws  provided  for  the  purpose.  If  these  precautions  be  strictly  observed, 

I  have  no  doubt  that  a  roof,  made  in  imitation  of  this  example,  will  stand 
as  perfectly,  and  with  as  little  settling,  as  those  formed  with  a  horizontal 
beam. 

Fig.  2,  is  an  example  of  a  roof  remarkable  for  its  antiquity,  simplicity 


64 


CARPENTRY. 


and  strength.  It  has  been  so  often  constructed,  that  it  needs  no  explana¬ 
tion  here.  Fig.  3,  exhibits  a  good  method  of  scarfing  timbers.  It  is  shown 
sufficiently  plain  upon  the  Plate,  without  further  explanation. 

Plate  LXVI. 

Fig.  1,  shows  a  method  of  trussing  a  partition  between  rooms,  in  which 
two  doors  are  placed.  If  the  lloor  below  the  partition  should  require 
support,  it  may  be  suspended  by  iron  rods  passing  up  through  the  beam  at 
the  head  of  the  trusses.  It  is  frequently  desirable  and  sometimes  neces¬ 
sary,  to  construct  fire-proof  rooms,  where  it  is  not  convenient  to  spare  the 
room,  or  incur  the  expense,  of  vaulting  in  the  ordinary  way.  I  have  there¬ 
fore  extracted  from  Trcdgold’s  excellent  treatise  on  the  strength  of  cast 
iron  and  other  metals,  a  table  furnishing  the  various  forms  and  sizes  of  cast 
iron  joists,  from  eight  to  twenty-four  feet  in  length,  and  the  manner  of 
turning  brick  arches  between  them,  so  as  to  make  the  floor  fire-proof. 
This  kind  of  floor  will  not  occupy  more  space  than  is  required  for  a  floor  of 
wood,  and  can  be  constructed  at  a  much  less  expense,  than  the  vaulted 
floor.  I  have  also  taken  from  the  same  author,  portions  of  other  tables, 
giving  the  dimensions  of  various  cast  iron  beams  and  columns,  and  the 
weight  which  they  will  respectively  bear. 


TABLE  OF  CAST  IRON  JOISTS,  for  fire-proof  floors,  where  the  load  is  not  greater  than 
one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  to  a  superficial  foot. 


Length  of 
joists. 

Half  brick  arches, 
breadth  of  beams  two  inches. 

Nine  inch  arches, 
breadth  of  beams  three  inches. 

Three  feet  span. 

Four  feet  span. 

Five  feet  span. 

Six  feet  span. 

Seven  feet  span. 

Eight  feet  span. 

Feet. 

Depth  in  inches 

Depth  in  inches. 

Depth  in  inches. 

Depth  in  inches. 

Depth  in  inches. 

Depth  in  inches. 

8 

4} 

H 

5* 

5* 

6 

10 

5* 

6* 

7 

6* 

7* 

7* 

12 

6* 

7* 

H 

7* 

8* 

9 

14 

7  * 

9 

10 

n 

10 

10* 

18 

10 

U* 

12* 

ii* 

13 

13* 

20 

ni 

13 

14 

13 

14* 

15 

22 

12* 

14* 

15* 

4* 

15* 

16* 

24 

13* 

15* 

17 

15* 

17 

18 

CARPENTRY. 


Fit/.  J 


STRENGTH  OF  CAST  IRON  BEAMS. 


65 


For  half  brick  arches,  the  breadth  of  the  beam  No.  1,  Plate  LX VI., 
should  be  two  inches,  and  the  thickness  of  the  middle,  eight-tenths  of  an 
inch.  The  depth  a  a  1,  and  b  7,  should  be  each  one-seventh  of  the  whole 
depth,  which  is  given  in  the  table,  in  inches,  for  each  span. 

For  nine  inch  arches,  the  breadth  of  the  beam  No.  2,  is  three  inches, 
and  the  breadth  of  the  middle  part,  one  and  two-tenths  inches,  and  the 
depth  one-seventh,  as  in  the  other  case.  A  beam  whose  upper  surface  is 
bounded  by  a  semi-ellipsis,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  on  Figs.  3  and  4, 
is  equally  strong  with  one  which  has  a  straight  line  for  the  upper  surface. 
It  is  evident  therefore,  that  a  considerable  saving  in  the  expense  of  beams 
may  be  made  by  forming  them  in  imitation  of  Figs.  3  or  4. 


A  TABLE,  showing  the  weight  or  pressure  a  Beam  of  Cast  Iron,  one  inch  in  breadth,  will 
sustain,  without  destroying  its  elastic  force,  when  it  is  supported  at  the  ends,  and  loaded  in 
the  middle  of  Us  length. 


Lengths 

2  feet. 

3  feet. 

4  feet. 

5  feet. 

6  feet. 

7  feet. 

8  feet. 

9  feet. 

10  feet. 

Depths. 

Weight  in 

Weight  in 

Weight  in 

Weight  in 

Weight  in 

Weight  in 

Weight  in 

Weight  in!  Weight  in 

Weight  in 

Inches. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1 

850 

425 

283 

212 

170 

142 

121 

106 

95 

85 

H 

1,912 

956 

637 

477 

383 

320 

273 

239 

214 

192 

2 

1,700 

1,132 

848 

680 

568 

484 

425 

380 

340 

n 

2,656 

1,769 

1,325 

1,062 

887 

756 

662 

594 

531 

3 

2,547 

1,908 

1,530 

1,278 

1,089 

954 

855 

765 

3,467 

2,597 

2,082 

1,739 

1,482 

1,298 

1,164 

1,041 

4 

3,392 

2,720 

2,272 

1,936 

1,700 

1,520 

1,360 

4,293 

3,442 

2,875 

2,450 

2,146 

1,924 

1,721 

5 

4,250 

3,560 

3,050 

2,650 

2,375 

2,125 

6 

6,120 

5,112 

4,356 

3,816 

3,420 

3,060 

7 

6,958 

5,929 

5,194 

4,655 

4,165 

8 

9,088 

7,744 

6,784 

6,080 

5,440 

9 

9,801 

8,586 

7,695 

6,885 

10 

12,100 

10,600 

9,500 

8,500 

11 

12,826 

11,495 

10,285 

12 

15,264 

13,680 

12,240 

13 

16,100 

14,400 

14 

18,600 

16,700 

17 


66 


STRENGTH  OF  CAST  IRON  BEAMS 


TABLE — Of  the  strength  of  Cast  Iron  Beams,  continued. 


|  Lengths..  12  feet. 

14  feet. 

16  feet. 

18  feet. 

20  feet. 

22  feet. 

24  feet. 

26  feet. 

28  feet. 

30  feet. 

Depths. 

Inches. 

Weight  in 
lbs. 

Weight  in 
lbs. 

Weight  in 
lbs. 

Weight  in 
lbs. 

Weicht  in 
Ids. 

Weight  in 
lbs. 

Weight  in 
lbs. 

Weight  in 
lbs. 

Weight  in 
lbs. 

!  Weight  in 
lbs. 

2 

283 

243 

212 

189 

170 

154 

142 

131 

121 

113 

3 

637 

546 

478 

425 

382 

347 

318 

294 

273 

255 

4 

1,133 

971 

849 

755 

680 

618 

566 

523 

485 

453 

5 

1,771 

1,518 

1,328 

1,180 

1 ,062 

966 

885 

817 

759 

708 

6 

2,548 

2,184 

1,912 

1,699 

1,530 

1,390 

1,274 

1,176 

1,092 

1,019 

7 

3,471 

2,975 

2,603 

2,314 

2,082 

1,893 

1,735 

1,602 

1,487 

1,388 

8 

4,532 

3,884 

3,396 

3,020 

2,720 

2,472 

2,264 

2,092 

1,940 

1,812 

9 

5,733 

4,914 

4,302 

3,825 

3,438 

3,123 

2,862 

2,646 

2,457 

2,295 

10 

7,083 

6,071 

5,312 

4,722 

4,250 

3,863 

3,541 

3,269 

3,035 

2,833 

11 

8,570 

7,346 

6,428 

5,714 

5,142 

4,675 

4,285 

3,955 

3,673 

3,428 

12 

10,192 

8,736 

7,648 

6,796 

6,120 

5,560 

5,096 

4,704 

4,368 

4,076 

13 

11,971 

10,260 

8,978 

7,980 

7,182 

6,529 

5,985 

5,525 

5,130 

4,788 

14 

13,883 

11,900 

10,412 

9,255 

8,330 

7,573 

6,941 

6,408 

5,950 

5,553 

15 

15,937 

13,660 

11,932 

10,624 

9,562 

8,692 

7,967 

7,355 

6,829 

6,374 

16 

18,128 

15,53(1 

13,584 

12,080 

10,880 

9,888 

9,056 

8,368 

7,760 

7,248 

17 

20,500 

17,500 

15,353 

13,647 

12,282 

1 1,166 

10,235 

9,447 

8,773 

8,188 

18 

22,932 

19,656 

17,208 

15,700 

13,752 

12,492 

11,448 

10,584 

9,828 

9,180 

19 

25,404 

21,800 

19,053 

16,935 

15,242 

13,857 

12,702 

11,725 

10,887 

10,161 

20 

28,332 

24,284 

21,248 

18,888 

17,000 

15,452 

14,164 

13,076 

12,140 

1 1 ,332 

21 

31,230 

26,770 

23,428 

20,825 

18,742 

17,036 

15,618 

14,417 

13,387 

12,495 

22 

34,500 

29,300 

25,712 

22,855 

20,570 

18,700 

17,141 

15,823 

14,693 

13,713 

23 

37,600 

32,000 

28,103 

24,980 

22,482 

20,439 

18,735 

17,286 

16,059 

14,988 

24 

40,768 

34,944 

30,592 

27,184 

24,480 

22,240 

20,384 

18,816 

17,492 

16,304 

25 

37,700 

33,203 

29,514 

26,562 

24,148 

22,135 

20,432 

18,973 

17,708 

26 

40,900 

35,912 

31,922 

28,730 

26,118 

23,941 

22,100 

20,521 

19,153 

27 

44,000 

38,728 

34,425 

30,982 

28,166 

25,819 

23,832 

22,130 

20,655 

28 

47,300 

41,650 

37,022 

33,320 

30,290 

27,766 

25,630 

23,800 

22,213 

29 

44,678 

39,714 

35,742 

32,493 

29,785 

27,494 

25,530 

23,828 

30 

17,8(1!! 

42,498 

38,250 

34,767 

31,869 

29,421 

27,315 

25,497 

This  table  is  intended  to  show  the  greatest  weight  a  beam  of  cast  iron 
will  bear  in  the  middle  of  its  length,  when  it  is  loaded  with  as  much  as  it 
will  bear,  so  as  to  recover  its  natural  form  when  the  load  is  removed.  If  a 
beam  he  loaded  beyond  that  point,  the  equilibrium  of  its  parts  is  destroy¬ 
ed,  and  it  takes  a  permanent  set.  Also,  in  a  beam  so  loaded  beyond  its 


STRENGTH  OF  CAST  IRON  BEAMS.  67 

strength,  the  deflexion  becomes  irregular,  increasing  very  rapidly  with  the 
weight  of  the  load. 

The  horizontal  row  of  figures,  along  the  top  of  the  table,  contains  the 
lengths  in  feet;  that  is,  the  distances  between  the  points  of  support. 

The  first  column  contains  the  depth  in  inches,  the  other  columns  contain 
the  weights  in  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  breadth  of  each  beam  is  one  inch, 
therefore  the  table  shows  the  utmost  weight  a  beam  of  one  inch  in  breadth 
should  have  to  bear;  and  a  piece  five  inches  in  breadth  will  bear  five  times 
as  much,  and  so  of  any  other  breadth. 

The  load  shown  by  the  table  is  the  greatest  a  beam  should  ever  sustain, 
and  therefore,  in  calculating  this  load,  ample  allowance  must  be  made  for 
accidents,  and  the  weight  of  the  beam  itself  must  be  included. 


A  TABLE,  to  short)  the  weight  or  pressure  a  cilindrical  pillar  or  column  of  cast  iron  will 

sustain,  with  safety,  in  hundred  weights. 


Lenglh  °r  2  f 
height. 

4  feet. 

6  feet. 

8  feet. 

10  feet. 

12  feet. 

14  feet. 

16  feet. 

18  feet. 

20  feet. 

22  feet. 

24  feet. 

Diam. 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Inches. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

in  cwts. 

-  1 

18 

12 

8 

5 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1* 

44 

36 

28 

19 

16 

12 

9 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

82 

72 

60 

49 

40 

32 

26 

22 

18 

15 

13 

11 

n 

129 

119 

105 

91 

77 

65 

55 

47 

40 

34 

29 

25 

3 

188 

178 

163 

145 

128 

111 

97 

84 

73 

64 

56 

49 

H 

257 

247 

232 

214 

191 

172 

156 

135 

119 

106 

94 

83 

4 

337 

326 

310 

288 

266 

242 

220 

198 

178 

160 

144 

130 

4i 

429 

418 

400 

379 

354 

327 

301 

275 

251 

229 

208 

189 

5 

530 

522 

501 

479 

452 

427 

394 

365 

337 

310 

285 

262 

6 

616 

607 

592 

573 

550 

525 

497 

496 

440 

413 

386 

360 

7 

1,040 

1,032 

1,013 

989 

959 

924 

887 

848 

808 

765 

725 

686 

8 

1,344 

1,333 

1,315 

1,289 

1,259 

1,224 

1,185 

1,142 

1,097 

1,052 

1,005 

959 

9 

1,727 

1,716 

1,697 

1,672 

1,640 

1,603 

1,561 

1,515 

1,467 

1,416 

1,364 

1,311 

10 

2,133 

2,122 

2,130 

2,077 

2,045 

2,007 

1,964 

1,916 

1,865 

1,811 

1,755 

1,697 

11 

2,580 

2,570 

2,550 

2,520 

2,490 

2,450 

2,410 

2,380 

2,230 

2,250 

2,190 

2,130 

12 

3,074 

3,050 

13,040 

3,020 

2,970 

2,930 

2,900 

2,830 

2,780 

2,730 

2,670 

2,600 

This  table  shows  by  inspection,  the  weight  or  pressure  a  cilindrical 
pillar  or  column  of  cast  iron  will  bear  with  safety.  The  pressure  is  ex- 


6S 


VELOCITY  AND  FORCE  OF  WINDS. 


pressed  in  cwts.,  and  is  computed  on  the  supposition  that  the  pillar  is  under 
the  most  unfavorable  circumstances  for  resisting  the  stress,  which  happens, 
when,  from  the  settlements,  imperfect  fitting,  or  other  causes,  the  direction 
of  the  stress  is  in  the  surface  of  the  pillar. 

The  horizontal  row  of  figures  at  the  top  of  the  table  contains  the  lengths 
or  heights  of  the  pillars  in  feet.  The  first  vertical  column  contains  the 
diameter  of  the  pillar  in  inches. 

The  other  vertical  columns  of  the  table  show  the  weight  in  cwts.,  which 
a  cast  iron  pillar,  of  the  height  at  the  top  of  the  column,  and  of  the  diam¬ 
eter  at  the  side  column,  will  support  with  safety.  Consequently,  of  the 
height,  the  diameter,  and  the  weight  to  be  supported,  any  two  being  given, 
the  other  will  be  found  by  inspection. 


TABLE  of  the  Force  of  Winds,  formed  from  the  Tables  of  Mr.  Rouse  and  Dr.  Lind,  and 
compared  with  the  Observations  of  Col.  Beaufoy. 


Velocity  in 
miles  pr  hour. 

A  wind  may  be  denominated  when  it  does  not  exceed  the  velocity 
opposite  to  it. 

Velocity  per 
second. 

Force  on  a  square 
foot. 

68 

13  6 
19-5 
34- 1 
47-7 
54-5 
682 
818 

102-3 

A  gentle  pleasant  wind . 

A  brisk  gale . 

A  very  brisk  gale . 

A  high  wind  . 

A  very  high  wind . 

A  storm  or  tempest . 

A  great  storm . 

A  hurricane  . 

A  violent  hurricane,  that  tears  up  trees,  overturns  ) 
buildings,  &c . ) 

10  feet 
20  .  .  . 
30.  .  . 
50.  .  . 
70  .  .  . 
80  .  .  . 
100  ..  . 
120 ..  . 

150.  .  . 

0-229  lbs. 

0  915  .  .  . 

2  059  .  .  . 
5-718  .  .  . 

1 1  -207  .  .  . 
14-638  .  .  . 
22-372  .  .  . 
32-926  .  .  . 

51-426  .  .  . 

Accurate  observations  on  the  variation  and  mean  intensity  of  the  force  of 
winds  would  be  very  desirable  both  to  the  mechanician  and  meteorologist. 


TABLE  OF  DATA,  &c. 

USEFUL  IN  VARIOUS  CALCULATIONS; 

ARRANGED  ALPHABETICALLY. 


THE  DATA  CORRESPOND  TO  THE  MEAN  TEMPERATURE  AND  PRESSURE  OF  THE 
ATMOSPHERE,  DRY  MATERIALS;  AND  THE  TEMPERATURE 
IS  MEASURED  BY  FAHRENHEIT’S  SCALE. 


Air.  Specific  gravity,  0-0012;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot,  0  0753  lbs.,  or  527  grains;  13‘3 
cubic  feet  or  17  cylindric  feet  of  air  weigh  1 
lb. ,  it  expands  or  ‘00208  of  its  bulk  at 

32°  by  the  addition  of  one  degree  of  heat. 

Ash.  Specific  gravity,  0-76;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot,  47  5  lbs.;  weight  of  a  bar  one  foot 
long,  and  one  inch  square,  0  33  lbs.;  will  bear 
without  permanent  alteration  a  strain  of  3,540 
lbs.  upon  a  square  inch,  and  an  extension  of 
of  its  length. 

Atmosphere.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
is  usually  estimated  at  30  inches  of  mercury, 
which  is  very  nearly  14|  lbs.  upon  a  square 
inch,  and  equivalent  to  a  column  of  water  34 
feet  high. 

Beech.  Specific  gravity,  0  696;  weight  of 
cubic  foot,  45  3  lbs.;  weight  of  a  bar  one  foot 
long  and  one  inch  square,  0315  lbs.;  will 
bear  without  permanent  alteration  on  a  square 
inch,  2,360  lbs.;  and  an  extension  of  of  its 
length. 

Brass,  cast.  Specific  gravity,  8  -37 ;  weight 

18 


of  a  cubic  foot,  523  lbs.;  weight  of  a  bar  one 
foot  long  and  one  inch  square,  3‘63  lbs.;  ex¬ 
pands  ?3-g-OT  of  its  length  by  one  degree  of 
heat;  melts  at  1,869°;  cohesive  force  of  a 
square  inch,  18,000  lbs.;  will  bear  on  a 
square  inch  without  permanent  alteration, 
6,700  lbs.;  and  an  extension  in  length  of  yg—j. 

Brick.  Specific  gravity,  T841;  weight  of 
a  cubic  foot,  115  lbs.;  absorbs  T’y  of  its  weight 
of  water;  cohesive  force  of  a  square  inch,  275 
lbs.;  is  crushed  by  a  force  of  562  lbs.  on  a 
square  inch. 

Bridges.  When  a  bridge  is  covered  with 
people,  it  is  about  equivalent  to  a  load  of  120 
lbs.  on  a  superficial  foot;  and  this  may  be 
esteemed  the  greatest  possible  extraneous 
load,  that  can  be  collected  on  a  bridge;  while 
one  incapable  of  supporting  this  load  cannot 
be  deemed  safe. 

Cast  iron.  Specific  gravity,  7‘207;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  450  lbs. ;  a  bar  one  foot  long 
and  one  inch  square,  weighs  3'2  lbs.  nearly;  it 
expands  °f  its  length  by  one  degree  of 


70 


PROPERTIES  OF  MATERIALS. 


heat;  greatest  change  of  length  in  the  shade 
in  this  climate,  T1>J5;  greatest  change  of 
length  exposed  to  the  sun’s  rays,  T5'Tff ;  melts 
at  3,479°  and  shrinks  in  cooling  from  to  j'T 
of  its  length;  is  crushed  by  a  force  of  93,000 
lbs.  upon  a  square  inch;  will  bear  without 
permanent  alteration  15,300  lbs.  upon  a  square 
inch,  and  an  extension  of  °f  '*s  length. 

Coal,  Newcastle.  Specific  gravity,  1-269; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  79-31  ibs.  A  London 
chaldron  of  36  bushels,  weighs  about  28  cwt., 
whence  a  bushel  is  87  lbs.,  (but  is  usually 
rated  at  84  lbs.)  A  Newcastle  chaldron,  53 
cwt. 

Copper.  Specific  gravity,  8-75;  weight  of 
a  cubic  foot,  549  lbs.;  weight  of  a  bar  one 
foot  long  and  one  inch  square,  3  81  lbs.,  ex¬ 
pands  in  length  by  one  degree  of  heat,  > 

melts  at  2,548°;  cohesive  force  of  a  square 
inch,  when  hammered,  33,000  lbs. 

Earth,  common.  Specific  gravity,  1-52  to 
2  00;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  from  95  to  125  lbs. 

Elm.  Specific  gravity,  0  544;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot,  34  lbs. ;  weight  of  a  bar  one  foot 
long  and  one  inch  square,  0236  lbs.;  will 
bear  on  a  square  inch  without  permanent 
alteration,  3,240  lbs. 

Granite,  Aberdeen.  Specific  gravity,  2  625; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  164  lbs.,  is  crushed  by 
a  force  of  10,910  lbs.  upon  a  square  inch. 

Gravel.  Weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  about  120 
lbs. 

Gun  Metal,  cast,  (copper  8  parts,  tin  1.) 
Specific  gravity,  8153;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot, 
509A  lbs. ;  weight  of  a  bar  one  foot  long  and 
oneinch  square,  3  54  lbs.;  expands  in  length 
by  1°  of  heat,  35^55 ;  will  bear  on  a  square 
inch  without  permanent  alteration,  10,000  lbs. 

Horse.  Of  average  power,  produces  the 
greatest  effect  in  drawing  a  load  when  exert¬ 
ing  a  force  of  187 A  lbs.  with  a  velocity  of  2£ 
feet  per  second,  working  eight  hours  in  a  day. 
A  good  horse  can  exert  a  force  of  480  lbs.  for 
a  short  time.  In  calculating  the  strength  for 
horse  machinery,  the  horse’s  power  should  be 
considered  400  lbs. 

Iron,  malleable.  Specific  gravity,  7  6 ;  weight 


of  a  cubic  foot,  475  lbs.;  weight  of  a  bar  one 
foot  long  and  one  inch  square,  3  3  lbs.;  ditto, 
when  hammered,  3  4  lbs.;  expands  in  length, 
by  1°  of  heat,  good  English  iron  will 

bear  on  a  square  inch  without  permanent  al¬ 
teration,  17,800  lbs. ,*  =  8  tons  nearly,  and  an 
extension  in  length  of  XjVtr- 

Lead,  cast.  Specific  gravity,  11  353;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  709  5  lbs.;  weight  of  a  bar  one 
foot  long  and  one  inch  square,  4  94  lbs.;  ex¬ 
pands  in  length,  by  1°  of  heat,  77^^;  melts 
at  612°;  will  bear  on  a  square  inch  without 
permanent  alteration,  1,500  lbs.,  and  an  ex¬ 
tension  in  length  of 

Mahogany,  Honduras.  Specific  gravity, 
0  56;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  35  lbs.;  weight 
of  a  bar  one  foot  long  and  one  inch  square, 
0  243  lbs. ;  will  bear  on  a  square  inch  with¬ 
out  permanent  alteration,  3,800  lbs.,  and  an 
extension  in  length  of  jiv. 

Man.  A  man  of  average  power  produces 
the  greatest  effect  when  exerting  a  force  of 
31 J  lbs.,  with  a  velocity  of  2  feet  per  second, 
for  10  hours  in  a  day.-j-  A  strong  man  will 
raise  and  carry  from  250  to  300  lbs. 

Marble,  white.  Specific  gravity,  2-706; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  169  lbs.;  weight  of  a 
bar  one  foot  long  and  one  inch  square,  1-17 
lbs.;  cohesive  force  of  a  square  inch,  18 11  lbs. 

Oak,  good  English.  Specific  gravity,  0  83; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  52  lbs.;  weight  of  a  bar 
one  foot  long  and  one  inch  square,  036  lbs.; 
will  bear  upon  a  square  inch  without  perma¬ 
nent  alteration,  3,960  lbs.  and  an  extension  in 
length  of 

Pine,  American,  yellow.  Specific  gravity, 
0-46;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  26^  lbs.;  weight 
of  a  bar  one  foot  long  and  one  inch  square, 
01 86  lbs.;  will  bear  on  a  square  inch  without 
permanent  alteration,  3,900  lbs.;  and  an  ex¬ 
tension  in  length  of  TTf- 

Roofs.  Weight  of  a  square  foot  of  Welsh 
rag  slating,  llj  lbs.;  weight  of  a  square  foot 

*  Equivalent  to  a  height  of  5,000  feet  of  the  same  matter. 

f  This  is  equivalent  to  half  a  cubic  foot  of  water  raised  two 
feet  per  serond  or  one  cubic  foot  of  water  one  foot  per  sec¬ 
ond.  Sen  liuchanan’s  Etsays,  vol.  ii.  p.  165,  second  edition. 


PROPERTIES  OF  MATERIALS. 


71 


of  plain  tiling,  16J  lbs.;  greatest  force  of  the 
wind  upon  a  superficial  foot  of  roofing  may  be 
estimated  at  40  lbs. 

Slate,  Welsh.  Specific  gravity,  2-752  ; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  172  lbs.;  weight  of  a 
bar  one  foot  long  and  one  inch  square,  1*19 
lbs.;  cohesive  force  of  a  square  inch,  11,500 
lbs.;  extension  before  fracture, 

Steam.  Specific  gravity  at  212°,  is  to  that 
of  air  at  the  mean  temperature,  as  0  472  is  to 
1;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  249  grains;  when 
not  in  contact  with  water,  expands  of  its 
bulk  by  1°  of  heat. 

Steel.  Specific  gravity,  7-84;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot,  490  lbs. ;  a  bar  one  foot  long  and 
one  inch  square,  weight  3‘4  1bs. ;  it  expands 
in  length  by  1°  of  heat,  yyyVooi  tempered 
steel  will  bear  without  permanent  alteration, 
45,000  lbs.;  cohesive  force  of  square  inch, 
130,000  lbs. 

Stone,  Portland.  Specific  gravity,  2*113; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  132  lbs.;  weight  of  a 
prism  one  inch  square  and  one  foot  long,  0  92 
lbs. ;  absorbs  T’g  of  its  weight  of  water;  is 
crushed  by  a  force  of  3,729  lbs.  upon  a  square 
inch;  cohesive  force  of  a  square  inch,  857 
lbs.;  extends  before  fracture,  X7V9  of  its 
length. 

Tin,  cast.  Specific  gravity,  7  291;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  455-7  lbs.;  weight  of  a  bar 
one  foot  long  and  one  inch  square,  3-165  lbs.; 
expands  in  length  by  1°  of  heat,  yjjt ?>>  melts 
at  442°;  will  bear  upon  a  square  inch  without 
permanent  alteration,  2,880  lbs.,  and  an  ex¬ 
tension  in  length  of 


Water,  river.  Specific  gravity,  1 -000;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  62  5  lbs.;  weight  of  a  cubic 
inch,  252-525  grains ;  weight  of  a  prism  one 
foot  long  and  one  inch  square,  0434  lbs.; 
weight  of  an  ale  gallon  of  water,  102  lbs.; 
expands  in  bulk  by  1°  of  heat,  gyVa  ;*  expands 
in  freezing  T'T  of  its  bulk;  and  the  expanding 
force  of  freezing  water  is  about  35,000  lbs. 
upon  a  square  inch. 

Water,  sea.  Specific  gravity,  1-0271;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  64  2  lbs. 

Water  is  828  times  the  density  of  air  of  the 
temperature  60°,  and  barometer  30. 

Whalebone.  Specific  gravity,  1"3;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  81  lbs.;  will  bear  a  strain  of 
5,600  lbs.  upon  a  square  inch  without  perma¬ 
nent  alteration;  and  an  extension  in  length 
°f  Tfa'- 

Wind.  Greatest  observed  velocity,  159  feet 
per  second;  force  of  wind  with  that  velocity, 
about  57|  lbs.  on  a  square  foot.| 

Zinc,  cast.  Specific  gravity,  7  028;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  439J  lbs. ;  weight  of  a  bar  one 
inch  square  and  one  foot  long,  3  0 5  lbs.;  ex¬ 
pands  in  length  by  1°  of  heat  jT|50  5  melts  at 
648°;  will  bear  on  a  square  inch  without  per¬ 
manent  alteration,  5,700  lbs. 


*  Water  has  a  state  of  maximum  density,  at  or  near  40°; 
which  is  considered  an  exception  to  the  general  law  of  expan¬ 
sion  by  heat ;  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  there  is  any 
thing  more  than  an  apparent  exception,  most  likely  arising 
from  water  at  low  temperatures  absorbing  a  considerable 
quantity  of  air,  which  has  the  effect  of  expanding  it ;  and 
consequently  of  causing  the  apparent  anomaly. 

t  See  Table,  page  68. 


A 


DICTI.ON ARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

USED  BY 

ARCHITECTS  AND  ARTIFICERS. 


Abanis.  The  upper  member  of  the  capital  of  a 
column  whereon  the  architrave  rests.  In  the 
Corinthian  order,  its  four  sides  are  curved  inwards 
in  segments  of  circles  on  the  plan,  and  are  deco¬ 
rated  in  the  centre  with  a  flower  or  some  other  or¬ 
nament. 

Abutment.  The  solid  part  of  a  pier  from  which 
an  arch  immediately  springs. 

Acanthus.  A  plant  called  in  English,  bear’s 
breach,  representations  of  whose  leaves  are  em¬ 
ployed  for  decorating  the  Corinthian  and  Compo¬ 
site  capitals. 

The  leaves  of  the  acanthus  are  used  on  the  bell 
of  the  capital,  and  distinguish  the  two  rich  orders 
from  the  three  others. 

Acroteria.  The  small  pedestals  placed  on  the 
extremities  and  apex  of  a  pediment.  They  are 
usually  without  bases  or  plinths,  and  were  origi¬ 
nally  intended  to  receive  statues. 

Alcove.  The  original  and  strict  meaning  of  this 
word,  which  is  derived  from  the  Spanish  alcoha,  is 
confined  to  that  part  of  a  bed-chamber  in  which 
the  bed  stands,  separated  from  the  other  parts  of 
the  room  by  columns  or  pilasters.  The  seats  in 
gardens  have  however  iu  this  country  been  de¬ 
signated  by  this  term. 

Alto  Relievo.  See  Relief. 

Amphiprostylos.  In  ancient  architecture,  a  temple 
with  columns  in  the  rear  os  well  ns  in  the  front. 

Amphitheatre.  A  double  theatre,  of  an  elliptical 
form  on  the  plan,  for  the  exhibition  of  the  ancient 
gladiatorial  fights  and  other  shows.  Its  Arena,  or 
Pit,  in  which  those  exhibitions  took  place,  was  en¬ 
compassed  with  seals  rising  above  each  other,  and 
the  exterior  find  the  accommodation  of  porticos,  or 
arcades  for  the  public. 


Ancones.  The  consoles  or  ornaments  cut  on  the 
key-stones  of  arches,  or  on  the  sides  of  door-cuses. 
They  are  sometimes  made  use  of  to  support  busts 
or  other  figures. 

Annulet.  A  small  square  moulding,  which 
crowns  or  accompanies  a  larger.  Also  that  fillet 
which  separates  the  flulings  of  a  column.  It  is 
sometimes  called  a  List  or  Listelln,  which  see. 

Anta.  ( Ant  re ,  plural.)  A  name  given  to  a  pilaster 
when  attached  to  a  wall.  Vitruvius  calls  pilasters 
parastatec  when  insulated.  They  are  not  usually 
diminished,  and  in  all  Greek  examples  their  capitals 
are  different  from  those  of  the  columns  they  ac¬ 
company. 

AnleJixa ,  in  ancient  architecture.  The  ornaments 
of  lions’  and  other  heads  below  the  eaves  of  a 
temple,  through  channels  in  which,  usually  by  the 
mouth,  the  water  is  carried  from  the  eaves.  By 
some  this  term  is  applied  to  the  upright  ornaments 
above  the  eaves,  in  ancient  architecture,  which  hid 
the  ends  of  the  Harmi  or  joint  tiles. 

Anlepnprmenta.  The  architraves  round  doors. 

Apophyge.  That  part  of  a  column  between  the 
upper  fillet  of  the  base,  and  the  cylindrical  part  of 
the  shaft  of  the  column,  which  is  usually  curved 
into  it  by  a  ravetto. 

Aqueduct.  An  artificial  canal  for  the  conveyance 
of  water,  either  above  or  under  ground.  The 
Roman  aqueducts  are  mostly  in  the  former  pre- 
dicument. 

Arerostylos.  That  style  of  building  in  which  the 
columns  are  distant  four  and  sometimes  five  diam¬ 
eters  from  each  other,  but  the  former  is  the  pro¬ 
portion  to  which  the  term  is  usually  applied.  This 
columnar  arrangement  is  suited  to  the  Tuscan 
order  only. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


73 


Arceosy stylos.  That  style  of  building  in  which 
four  columns  are  used  in  the  space  of  eight  di¬ 
ameters  and  a  half.  The  central  intercolumniation 
being  three  diameters  and  a  half,  and  the  others 
on  each  side  being  only  half  a  diameter,  by  which 
arrangement  coupled  columns  are  introduced. 

Arch.  A  scientific  arrangement  of  bricks, 
stones,  or  other  materials  in  a  curvilinear  form, 
which  by  their  mutual  pressure  and  support,  per¬ 
form  the  office  of  a  lintel,  and  carry  superincum¬ 
bent  weights,  the  whole  resting  at  its  extremities 
upon  the  piers  or  abutments. 

Architrave.  The  lower  of  the  primary  divisions 
of  the  entablature.  It  is  placed  immediately  upon 
the  abacus  of  the  capital. 

Airis.  The  line  of  concourse,  edge  or  meeting 
of  two  surfaces. 

Ashler,  in  masonry.  A  term  used  among  artifi¬ 
cers,  by  which  they  designate  common  freestones, 
as  they  come  out  of  the  quarry,  of  different  lengths 
and  thicknesses.  Nine  inches  however  is  their 
thickness. 

Aslilering,  in  carpentry.  Quartering  in  garrets  to 
which  the  laths  are  nailed,  about  two  feet  and 
a  half  or  three  feet  high,  perpendicular  to  the  flooi-, 
and  reaching  up  to  the  underside  of  the  rafters. 

Astragal.  A  small  moulding,  whose  profile  is 
semi-circular.  It  bears  also  the  name  of  Talon  or 
Tondino.  The  Astragal  is  often  cut  into  repre¬ 
sentations  of  beads  and  berries,  and  is  used  in 
ornamented  entablatures  to  separate  the  faces  of 
the  architrave. 

Attic  Base.  See  Base. 

Attic  Order.  An  order  of  low  pilasters,  generally 
placed  over  orders  of  columns  or  pilasters.  It  is 
improperly  called  an  order,  for  the  arrangement 
can  scarcely  admit  of  such  an  appellation. 

Back  of  a  Hip.  The  upper  edge  of  the  hip 
rafter,  between  the  two  sides  of  a  hipped  roof, 
formed  to  an  angle  so  as  to  range  with  the  rafters 
on  each  side  of  it. 

Back  of  a  Rafter.  The  upper  side  of  it. 

Back  of  a  Slate.  The  upper  side  of  it. 

Backer,  in  slating.  A  narrow  slate  laid  on  the 
back  of  a  broad  square  headed  slate,  where  the 
slates  begin  to  diminish  in  width. 

Balcony.  A  projection  from  the  surface  of  a 
wall,  usually  supported  by  consoles  and  surrounded 
by  a  balustrade  or  railing. 

Baluster.  A  small  pillar  or  pilaster,  serving  to 
support  a  rail,  see  Plate  XXIII.  Its  form  is  of 
considerable  variety  in  different  examples.  Some¬ 

19 


times  it  is  round,  at  other  times  square ;  it  is 
adorned  with  mouldings  and  other  decorations 
according  to  the  richness  of  the  order  it  accom¬ 
panies. 

Balustrade.  A  connected  series  of  several  bal¬ 
usters,  as  on  balconies,  terraces,  around  altars,  &c. 
See  Plate  XXIII. 

Band.  A  term  used  to  signify  what  is  generally 
called  a  face  or  fascia.  It  more  properly  signifies 
a  flat  low  square  profiled  member,  without  respect 
to  its  place. 

Bandelet.  A  diminutive  of  the  foregoing  term, 
used  to  signify  any  narrow  flat  moulding.  The 
t tenia  on  the  Doric  architrave  is  called  its  bandelet. 

Bar  Iron.  A  long  prismatic  piece  of  iron,  being 
a  rectangular  parallelopiped,  so  prepared  from  pig 
iron,  as  to  be  malleable  for  the  use  of  the  smith. 

Base.  The  lower  part  of  a  column,  moulded  or 
plain,  on  which  the  shaft  is  placed.  The  word 
also  signifies  any  support,  but  it  is  in  decorative 
architecture  mostly  used  in  the  above  sense.  The 
earliest  columns,  as  those  of  the  Grecian  Doric, 
were  without  bases,  standing  immediately  on  the 
floor  or  pavement  of  the  portico. 

Basilica.  A  town  or  court  hall,  a  cathedral,  a 
palace,  where  kings  administered  justice. 

Basso  Relievo.  See  Relief. 

Batten.  A  name  given  by  workmen  to  a  piece 
of  board,  from  two  to  four  inches  broad,  and  about 
one  inch  thick,  the  length  is  rather  considerable, 
but  undefined. 

Battening.  Narrow  Battens  fixed  to  a  wall  to 
nail  the  laths  to. 

Batter.  A  term  used  by  bricklayers,  carpenters, 
&c.  to  signify  a  wall,  piece  of  timber,  or  other 
material  which  does  not  stand  upright,  but  inclines 
from  you  when  you  stand  before  it ;  but,  when  on 
the  contrary,  it  leans  towards  you,  they  say  of  its 
inclination  that  it  overhangs. 

Bead.  A  moulding  whose  vertical  section  is 
semi-circular.  Hence  when  the  edge  of  any  piece 
is  in  this  form,  it  is  said  to  be  beaded. 

Beam.  An  horizontal  piece  of  timber  used  to 
resist  a  force,  or  weight,  as  a  tie-beam,  which  acts 
as  a  string  or  chain,  by  its  tension  ;  as  a  straining- 
piece,  which  acts  by  compression. 

Bearer.  Any  upright  piece  used  by  way  of 
support  to  another. 

Bed,  in  bricklaying  and  masonry.  The  hori¬ 
zontal  surfaces  on  which  the  stones  or  bricks  of 
walls  lie  in  courses. 

Bed  of  a  Slate.  The  lower  side. 


74 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


Bed  .Mouldings.  Those  mouldings  in  all  the 
orders  between  the  corona  and  frieze. 

llcvel.  An  instrument  for  taking  angles.  One 
side  of  a  solid  body  is  said  to  be  beveled  with 
respect  to  another,  when  the  angle  contained 
between  those  two  sides  is  greater  or  less  than  a 
right  angle. 

Bird's  .Mouth.  The  interior  angle  or  notch  cut 
on  the  extremity  of  a  piece  of  timber,  so  that  it 
may  be  received  on  the  edge  of  another  piece  as  a 
rafter. 

Blocking-course.  The  course  of  masonry  or 
brickwork  on  the  top  of  a  cornice. 

Bond,  in  bricklaying  and  masonry.  That  con¬ 
nection  between  bricks  and  stones  formed  by 
lapping  them  upon  one  another  in  carrying  up  the 
work,  so  as  to  form  an  inseparable  mass  of  building, 
by  preventing  the  vertical  joints  falling  over  each 
other. 

Bond  Stones.  Stones  running  through  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  at  right  angles  to  its  face,  in 
order  to  bind  it  together. 

Bond  Timber.  Timber  laid  in  walls  to  tie  them 
together  longitudinally  while  the  work  is  setting. 

Bossage,  a  French  term.  Any  projection  left 
rough  on  the  face  of  a  stone  for  the  purposes  of 
sculpture,  which  is  usually  the  last  thing  finished. 

Bottom  Rail,  in  joinery.  The  lowest  rail  of  a 
door. 

Boxings.  See  Linings. 

Brace,  in  carpentry.  An  inclined  piece  of  timber, 
used  in  trussed  partitions,  or  in  framed  roofs,  in 
order  to  form  a  triangle,  and  thereby  stiffen  the 
framing.  When  a  Brace  is  used  by  way  of  support 
to  a  rafter,  it  is  called  a  Strut.  Braces  in  partitions, 
and  span  roofs  are,  or  always  should  be,  disposed 
in  pairs,  and  introduced  in  opposite  directions. 

Break.  Any  projection  from  the  general  surface 
of  a  building. 

Breaking  Joint.  The  arrangement  of  stones  or 
bricks  so  as  not  to  allow  two  joints  to  coine  imme¬ 
diately  over  each  other. 

Brick  Trimmer.  A  brick  arch  abutting  against 
the  wooden  trimmer  under  the  slab  of  the  fire¬ 
place,  to  prevent  the  communication  of  fire. 

Bridge,  in  masonry.  An  edifice  or  structure, 
consisting  of  one,  or  more  arebes,  raised  for  passing 
a  road- way  over  a  river,  canal,  &c. 

Cabling.  The  filling  up  of  the  lower  part  of  a 
fluting  of  a  column,  with  a  solid  cylindrical  piece. 
Flutinga  thus  treated  are  said  to  be  cabled. 

Caisson.  A  name  given  to  the  sunk  pnnncls  of 


various  geometrical  forms  symmetrically  disposed 
in  flat  or  vaulted  ceilings,  or  in  soffits. 

Caisson,  in  bridge  building.  A  chest  or  vessel 
in  which  the  piers  of  a  bridge  are  built,  gradually 
sinking  as  the  work  advances,  till  its  bottom  comes 
in  contact  with  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  then  the 
sides  are  disengaged,  being  so  constructed  as  to 
allow  of  their  being  thus  detached  without  injury 
to  its  floor  or  bottom. 

Camber,  in  carpentry.  The  convexity  of  a  beam 
upon  the  upper  surface,  in  order  to  prevent  its 
becoming  straight  or  concave  by  its  own  weight, 

|  or  by  the  burden  it  may  have  to  sustain. 

Canted.  Obtuse  angled. 

Cantilivers.  Pieces  of  wood  framed  into  the 
front  and  sides  of  a  house  to  sustain  the  eaves  and 
mouldings  over  them. 

Capital.  The  head  or  uppermost  member  be¬ 
longing  to  a  column  or  pilaster. 

Carpentry.  The  art  of  arranging  the  main 
timbers  of  an  edifice. 

Cartouch.  The  same  as  modillion,  except  that  it 
is  exclusively  used  to  signify  those  blocks  or  mo- 
dill  ions  at  the  eaves  of  a  house.  See  Modillion. 

Caryatides.  Figures  of  women,  which  serve 
instead  of  columns  to  support  the  entablature. 

Casement.  A  term  used  to  signify  sashes  hung 
on  hinges. 

Casting  or  Warping,  in  joinery.  The  bending 
of  the  surfaces  of  a  piece  of  wrood  from  their 
original  position,  caused  either  by  the  weight  of 
their  own  substance,  or  by  an  unequal  exposure  to 
the  weather,  or  by  the  ununiform  texture  of  the 
wood. 

Caxdicolus.  The  volute  or  twist  under  the  flower 
in  the  Corinthian  Capital. 

Cavelto.  A  hollow  moulding  whose  profile  is  a 
quadrant  of  a  circle. 

Ceiling,  in  plastering.  The  uppermost,  hori¬ 
zontal  or  curved  surface  of  an  apartment  opposite 
to  the  floor,  generally  finished  with  plastered  wTork. 

Centering.  The  temporary  woodwork  on  which 
an  nrch  is  constructed. 

Cincture.  A  ring,  list  or  fillet  at  the  top  and 
bottom  of  a  column,  serving  to  divide  the  shaft  of 
the  column  from  its  capital  and  base. 

Clamp,  in  joinery.  A  piece  of  wood  fixed  to  the 
end  of  a  board  with  a  mortise  and  tenon,  or  with 
a  groove  and  tongue,  so  that  the  fibres  of  the  piece 
thus  fixed,  traverse  those  of  the  board,  and  thus 
prevent  it  from  casting:  the  piece  at  the  end  is  cal¬ 
led  a  clam]),  and  the  board  is  said  to  be  clamped. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


75 


Coat.  A  thickness  or  covering  of  plaster  or 
other  work  done  at  one  time. 

Cofferdam.  A  case  or  cases  of  piling  without  a 
floor,  in  which  the  piers  of  a  bridge  are  built. 

Coffers.  The  sunk  panels  which  are  placed  in 
vaults  and  domes,  often  ornamented  with  flowers 
in  their  centres. 

Collar  Beam.  A  beam  framed  crosswise  betwixt 
two  principal  rafters  above  the  plates  on  which 
they  pitch. 

Column.  A  member  in  architecture,  whose  ver¬ 
tical  section  through  the  axis  is  generally  a  frustum 
of  an  elongated  parabola.  Its  plan  is  circular,  and 
it  consists  of  a  base,  a  shaft;  or  body,  and  a  capital. 
It  differs  from  the  pilaster,  which  is  square  on  the 
plan. 

Composite  Order.  One  of  the  orders  of  archi¬ 
tecture. 

Conge.  Another  name  for  the  echinus  or 
quarter  round. 

Console.  See  Ancones. 

Corinthian  Order.  One  of  the  orders  of  archi¬ 
tecture. 

Cornice.  The  projection,  consisting  of  several 
members,  which  crowns  or  finishes  the  superior 
part  of  an  entablature,  or  of  any  other  part  to 
which  it  is  attached. 

Corona.  The  flat  square  and  massy  member  of 
a  cornice,  whose  situation  is  between  the  cymatium 
above,  and  the  bed  moulding  below  ;  its  use  is  to 
carry  the  water  from  the  building. 

Corridor.  A  gallery  or  open  communication  to 
the  different  apartments  of  a  house. 

Corsa.  The  name  given  by  Vitruvius  to  any 
platband  or  square  fascia,  whose  height  is  more 
than  its  projecture. 

Coupled  Columns *  See  Areeosystylos. 

Course,  in  bricklaying  and  masonry.  A  con¬ 
tinued  level  range  of  stones  or  bricks,  of  the  same 
height  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  building 
as  far  as  the  solid  part  continues,  uninterrupted  by 
any  aperture. 

Course,  in  slating  and  shingling.  An  horizontal 
tier  of  slates  or  shingles. 

Cradling.  The  timber  ribs  in  arched  ceilings 
and  coves  to  which  the  laths  are  nailed. 

Crown,  in  architecture.  The  uppermost  member 
of  the  cornice  called  also  Corona  and  Larmier. 

Croivn,  or  King  Post,  in  carpentry.  The  post 
which  in  roofs  stands  vertically  in  the  middle 
between  the  two  principal  rafters. 


Cupola.  A  small  room  either  circular  or  po¬ 
lygonal,  standing  on  the  top  of  a  dome.  By  some 
it  is  called  a  Lantern. 

Curtail  Step.  The  lower  step  in  a  flight  of  stairs 
ending  at  its  outer  extremity  in  a  scroll. 

Cyma,  called  also  Cymatium,  its  name  arising 
from  its  resemblance  to  a  wave.  A  moulding 
which  is  hollow  in  its  upper  part  and  swelling 
below.  Of  this  moulding,  there  are  two  sorts,  the 
Cyma  Recta,  just  described,  and  the  Cyma  Reversa, 
whose  upper  part  swells,  whilst  the  lowest  part  is 
hollow. 

Dado,  in  architecture.  The  die,  or  that  part  in 
the  middle  of  the  pedestal  of  a  column,  which  is 
between  its  base  and  cornice.  It  is  of  a  cubic 
form,  and  thence  takes  the  name  of  Die. 

Decastylos.  A  building  having  ten  columns  in 
front.  ’ 

Dentils.  Small  square  blocks  or  projections 
used  in  the  bed  mouldings  of  the  cornices  in  the 
Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite  Orders. 

Diastylos.  That  style  in  which  the  interco- 
lumniation  or  space  between  the  columns  consists 
of  three  diameters,  some  say  four  diameters. 

Die  or  Dye.  A  naked  square  cube.  Thus  the 
body  of  a  pedestal  or  that  part  between  its  base 
and  its  cap,  is  called  the  die  of  the  pedestal. 

Diminution.  The  gradual  decrease  of  thickness 
towards  the  upper  part  of  a  column. 

Dipteral.  A  term  used  by  the  ancients  to  signify 
a  temple  which  had  a  double  range  of  columns  on 
each  of  its  flanks. 

Discharge.  A  term  used  to  signify  the  relief 
afforded  to  any  part  on  which  a  weight  is  to  be 
borne.  Thus,  Discharging  Arches  are  those  used 
in  the  wall  over  a  lintel  to  relieve  the  lintel  of  the 
weight  which  would  be  otherwise  incumbent 
thereon. 

Ditriglyph.  An  intercolumniation  above  which 
two  triglyphs  are  disposed. 

Dodecastylos.  A  building  having  twelve  columns 
in  front. 

Dome.  The  spherical  or  other  formed  concave 
ceiling  over  a  circular  or  polygonal  building. 
Diminished  Domes  are  those  which  are  segmental 
on  their  section.  Surmounted  Domes  are  those 
which  are  higher  than  the  radius  of  the  base. 

Door  Frame.  The  surrounding  case,  into  and 
out  of  which  the  door  shuts  and  opens.  It  consists 
of  two  upright  pieces  and  a  head,  generally  fixed 
together  by  mortices  and  tenons,  and  wrought, 
rebated  and  beaded. 


76 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


Doric  Order.  One  of  the  five  orders  of  archi¬ 
tecture. 

Dormer,  in  architecture.  A  window  placed  on 
the  inclined  plane  of  the  roof  of  a  house,  or  above 
the  entablature,  being  raised  upon  the  rafters,  with 
its  frame  in  a  vertical  position. 

Dovetailing,  in  carpentry  and  joinery.  The 
method  of  fastening  boards,  or  other  timbers  to¬ 
gether,  by  letting  one  piece  into  another  in  the 
form  of  the  expanded  tail  of  a  dove. 

Dragon  Beams.  Those  horizontal  pieces  of 
timber  on  which  the  hip  rafters  pitch.  They  are 
framed  into  short  diagonal  pieces  which  tie  the 
plates  at  the  internal  angles  of  a  roof. 

Dressings,  in  joinery.  Any  mouldings  or  other 
finishings. 

Drift.  The  horizontal  force  of  an  arch,  by 
which  it  endeavors  to  overset  the  piers. 

Dripping  Eaves.  The  lower  edges  of  a  roof, 
wherefrom  the  water  drips  on  the  ground. 

Drops.  Sec  Guttsc. 

Drum.  The  upright  part  of  a  cupola  over  a 
dome.  Also  the  solid  part  or  vase  of  the  Corin¬ 
thian  and  Composite  capitals. 

Eaves,  in  slating  and  shingling.  The  margin  or 
lower  part  of  the  slating  hanging  over  the  wall, 
to  throw  the  water  oft'  froiii  the  masonry  or 
brickwork. 

Echinus.  The  same  as  the  ovolo  or  quarter 
round,  but  perhaps  that  moulding  is  only  properly 
called  echinus  when  carved  with  eggs  and  anchors, 
as  they  are  termed.  Echinus  is  the  husk  or  shell 
of  the  chestnut,  to  which  it  is  saiil  to  bear  a  re¬ 
semblance. 

Eggs.  See  Echinus. 

Elbows.  The  sides  or  flanks  of  any  panelled 
work. 

Entablature.  The  assemblage  of  parts  supported 
by  the  column.  It  consists  of  three  parts,  the 
architrave,  frieze  and  cornice. 

Epistylium.  The  same  as  Architrave,  which  sec. 

Eustylos.  That  iutercolumniation,  which,  as  its 
name  would  import,  the  ancients  considered  the  i 
most  elegant,  viz.  two  diameters  and  a  quarter  of 
the  column.  Vitruvius  says  this  manner  of  ar¬ 
ranging  columns  exceeds  all  others  in  strength, 
convenience,  and  beauty. 

Exhedra.  A  recess  in  the  ancient  porticos  or 
ambulatories  for  retirement  from  the  crowd. 

Exlrados.  The  exterior  or  convex  curve,  forming 


the  upper  line  of  the  arch  stones :  the  term  is 
opposed  to  the  intrados  or  concave  side. 

Eye  of  a  Dome.  The  aperture  at  its  summit. 

Eye  of  a  Volute.  The  circle  in  its  centre. 

Facade.  The  face  or  front  of  any  building 
towards  a  street,  court,  garden  or  other  place,  more 
usually  however  used  to  signify  the  principal  front. 

Facing.  That  part  of  any  work  which  presents 
itself  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator. 

Fascia.  A  flat  member  in  the  entablature  or 
elsewhere,  being  in  fact  nothing  more  than  a  band 
or  broad  fillet.  The  architrave  in  the  more  elegant 
orders  is  divided  into  three  bands  :  these  are  called 
faseite.  The  lower  is  called  the  first  fascia,  the 
middle  one  the  second,  and  the  upper  one  the  third 
fascia. 

Festoon.  An  ornament  of  carved  work,  repre¬ 
senting  a  wreath  or  garland  of  flowers  or  leaves,  or 
both  interwoven  with  each  other.  It  is  thickest  in 
the  middle,  and  small  at  each  extremity,  where  it  is 
tied,  a  part  often  hanging  down  below  the  knot. 

Fillet.  The  small  square  member  which  is 
placed  above  or  below  the  various  square  or  curved 
members  in  an  order. 

Fine  Stuff,  in  plastering.  A  composition  of  lime 
slacked  and  sifted  through  a  fine  sieve,  mixed  with 
a  proper  quantity  of  hair,  and  sometimes  a  small 
portion  of  fine  sand.  Fine  stufris  used  in  common 
ceilings  and  walls  set  to  receive  paper  or  color. 

First  Coat,  in  plastering  of  two  coat  work,  is 
denominated  ‘laying’  when  on  lath,  and  ‘ren¬ 
dering  ’  when  on  brick ;  in  three  coat  work  upon 
lath,  it  is  denominated  ‘  pricking  up,’  and  upon 
brick,  ‘  roughing  in.’ 

Flashings.  Pieces  of  lead  let  into  the  joints  of 
a  wall,  so  us  to  lap  over  gutters  or  other  pieces. 

Flutling.  A  coat  of  paint  which,  from  the  action 
of  the  turpentine  used  therein,  leaves  no  gloss  on 
the  surface. 

Floated  tf'ork.  That  which  is  pricked  up, 
floated,  that  is,  made  of  a  perfectly  plane  surface 
by  means  of  a  tool  called  a  float,  and  set,  or 
roughed  in  floated  and  set. 

Floated  Lath  and  Plaster.  Three  coat  work,  the 
first  whereof  is  pricking  up,  the  second  floating, 
and  the  tliinl  or  setting  coat  of  fine  stuff. 

Floating  Skrceds,  in  plastering.  Strips  of  plnster 
to  flout  to;  in  cornices,  wooden  moulds  edged  with 
metal,  are  used  for  the  execution  of  the  work. 

Floor,  in  architecture.  The  underside  of  the 
room,  or  that  part  whereon  we  walk.  Floors  arc 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


77 


of  several  sorts,  as  of  earth,  of  brick,  stone,  usually 
called  pavement,  and  of  wood. 

Carpenters  by  the  word  f  oor  understand  as  well 
the  framed  work  of  timber  as  the  boarding  over  it. 

Flue.  The  open  concealed  aperture  of  a  chimney 
from  the  fire-place  to  the  top  of  the  shaft. 

Flush.  The  continued  surface  in  the  same 
plane,  of  two  contiguous  masses. 

Flutes  or  Flutings.  The  vertical  channels  on 
the  shafts  of  columns,  which  are  usually  rounded 
above  and  below.  They  are  sometimes  circular 
or  segmental,  and  sometimes  elliptical  on  their 
horizontal  section.  In  the  Doric  order  they  are 
twenty  in  number,  in  the  other  orders,  the  Tuscan 
excepted,  which  is  never  fluted,  their  number  is 
usually  twenty-four.  They  are  occasionally  cabled. 
See  Cabling. 

Footings.  The  spreading  courses  at  the  base  or 
foundation  of  a  wall. 

Framing.  The  rough  timber  work  of  a  house, 
including  the  flooring,  roofing,  partitioning,  ceiling 
and  beams  thereof. 

Fret  or  Frette.  A  kind  of  continued  knot  or 
ornament  consisting  of  one  or  more  small  fillets 
running  vertically  and  horizontally,  and  at  equal 
distances  in  both  directions.  The  sections  of  the 
channels  below  the  surface  of  the  fillet  are  rec¬ 
tangular. 

Frieze  or  Frize.  The  middle  member  in  the 
entablature  of  an  order,  which  separates  the  ar¬ 
chitrave  and  cornice. 

Frontispiece.  The  face  or  fore  front  of  a  house, 
but  it  is  a  term  more  usually  applied  to  its  dec¬ 
orated  entrance. 

Furniture.  The  external  brass-work  of  locks, 
knobs  of  doors,  and  window-fastenings,  &c. 

Furring,  in  carpentry.  The  bringing  a  piece  of 
sunk  framing  to  a  regular  surface,  by  nailing  thin 
pieces  thereon. 

Galile.  The  upright  triangular  piece  of  wall  at 
each  end  of  a  roof  from  the  eaves  to  the  summit. 

Guage,  in  plastering.  A  mixture  of  fine  stuff 
and  plaster,  or  putty  and  plaster,  or  coarse  stuff 
and  plaster,  used  in  finishing  the  best  ceilings,  and 
for  mouldings,  and  sometimes  for  setting  walls. 

Girder.  The  principal  beam  of  a  floor  for  sup¬ 
porting  the  binding  joists. 

Glyph.  A  vertical  channel  sunk  on  a  tablet. 
Those  of  the  Doric  frieze  are,  from  their  number, 
called  Triglyphs. 

Groins.  The  lines  formed  at  the  intersection  of 
two  arches  which  cross  each  other. 


Groove,  in  joinery.  A  term  used  to  signify  a 
sunk  channel  whose  section  is  rectangular.  It  is 
usually  employed  on  the  edge  of  a  moulding,  stile 
or  rail,  &c.  into  which  a  tongue  corresponding  to 
its  section,  and  in  the  substance  of  the  wood  to 
which  it  is  joined,  is  inserted. 

Ground  Plate  or  Sill.  The  lowest  plate  of  a 
wooden  building  for  supporting  the  principal  and 
other  posts. 

Grounds,  in  joinery.  Pieces  of  wood,  flush  with 
the  plastering  to  which  the  wooden  finishings  are 
attached. 

Grout.  Semi-liquid  mortar. 

Guilloche.  An  ornament  composed  of  fillets  in 
curvilinear  directions,  which  form  a  continued 
series  by  their  repetition. 

Guttce.  Those  frusta  of  cones  in  the  Doric 
architrave,  under  the  trigylph  in  the  Doric  order, 
which  occur  below  the  taenia.  They  are  also 
found  in  the  under  part  of  the  mutuli  or  modillions 
of  that  order.  Sometimes  they  are,  as  in  the  Greek 
examples,  a  little  curved  inwards  on  their  profile. 

Hammer-beam.  An  horizontal  piece  of  timber 
introduced  towards  the  lower  part  of  a  rafter  acting 
as  a  tie. 

Harmus,  in  Greek  architecture.  The  tile  which 
covers  the  joint  between  two  common  tiles. 

Headers,  in  bricklaying  and  masonry.  Bricks  or 
stones  with  the  short  face  in  front. 

Heading  Courses,  in  bricklaying  and  masonry. 
Those  in  which  bricks  and  stones  are  laid  entirely 
with  headers. 

Helix.  The  curling  stalk  under  the  flower  in 
the  Corinthian  capital.  See  Caulicolus. 

Hexastylos.  A  building  having  six  columns  in 
front. 

Hips.  The  inclined  pieces  of  timber  at  the 
angles  of  a  roof;  hence  a  hipped  roof  is  that  in 
which  all  the  four  sides  have  the  same  inclination 
to  the  horizon. 

Holing,  in  slating.  The  piercing  of  the  slates 
for  nails. 

Hyprethral.  In  the  open  air,  or  uncovered  by  a 
roof. 

Hyperthyrum.  The  lintel  of  a  doorway. 

Hypotrachelion.  The  neck  of  a  capital. 

Jack  Timbers,  in  carpentry.  Timbers  shorter 
than  the  whole  length  of  other  pieces  in  the  same 
range. 

Jambs.  The  side  pieces  of  any  opening  in  a 


20 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


78 

wall,  which  bear  the  piece  that  discharges  the 
superincumbent  weight  of  such  wall. 

Iconography.  The  plan  of  a  building. 

Impages.  Usually  supposed  to  mean  the  rails  of 
a  door. 

Impost.  The  capital  of  a  pilaster  supporting  an 
arch.  The  impost  varies  in  form  according  to  the 
order  with  which  it  is  used. 

Inserted  Column.  One  let  into  a  wall. 

Insulated.  Detached  from  another  building.  A 
church  is  insulated,  when  not  contiguous  to  any 
other  edifice.  A  column  is  said  to  be  insulated, 
when  standing  free  from  the  wall  ;  thus  the 
columns  of  peripteral  temples  were  insulated. 

Intercolumniation.  The  distance  between  two 
columns. 

Intertie,  in  carpentry.  A  horizontal  piece  of 
timber  framed  between  two  posts,  in  order  to  tie 
them  together. 

Intrados  of  an  arch.  The  interior  or  concave 
curve  of  the  arch  stones. 

Inverted  Jlrclies.  Those  whose  key  stone  or 
brick  is  the  lowest  in  the  arch. 

Joggle  Piece.  A  truss  post,  with  shoulders  and 
sockets  for  receiving  the  lower  ends  of  the  struts. 

Joggled  Joints.  Joints  of  stones  or  other  masses, 
so  indented  as  to  prevent  the  oue  from  being  pushed 
away  from  the  other  by  a  force  perpendicular  to 
the  pressures  by  which  they  hold  together. 

Joinery.  The  art  of  framing  wood  for  the  fin¬ 
ishing  of  houses. 

Joists.  Those  timbers  in  a  floor  which  support, 
or  are  necessary  to  the  support  of  the  boarding  or 
ceiling. 

Ionic  Order.  One  of  the  orders  of  architecture. 

Key,  in  joinery.  A  piece  of  wood  inserted  into 
the  back  of  another,  whose  grain  runs  in  a  contrary 
direction,  to  prevent  the  latter  from  warping. 

Key  Stone.  That  stone  in  an  arch,  which  is 
equally  distant  from  its  springing  extremities. 

King  Post.  The  middle  post  of  a  trussed  piece 
of  framing  for  supporting  the  tie  beam  at  the  middle 
ami  the  lower  ends  of  the  struts. 

Knee.  A  piece  of  timber  naturally  or  artificially 
bent  to  receive  another  to  relieve  a  weight  or  strain. 

Lacunar.  The  same  as  Soffit,  which  see.  It  is 
however  to  lie  observed,  that  it  is  a  lacunar  only 
when  consisting  of  compartments  sunk  or  hollowed, 
without  the  separation  of  platbands  or  spaces 
between  the  panels.  When  they  are  added,  it  is 
called  laquear. 


Lantern.  A  square,  circular,  or  polygonal  erec¬ 
tion  on  the  top  of  a  dome  or  other  apartment  to 
give  light.  See  Cupola. 

Larmier.  Called  also  Corona,  which  see. 

Lath.  A  slip  of  wood  used  in  slating,  tiling  and 
plastering. 

Lime  and  Hair,  in  plastering.  A  mixture  of 
lime  and  hair  used  in  first  coating  and  floating. 
It  is  sometimes  denominated  coarse  stuff :  in 
floating  more  hair  is  used  than  in  first  coating. 

Lcanto.  A  building  against  another,  in  which 
the  rafters  of  the  former  iean  against  the  latter. 

Leaves.  Ornaments  representing  natural  leaves. 
The  ancients  used  two  sorts  of  leaves,  natural  and 
imaginary.  The  natural  were  those  of  the  laurel, 
palm,  acanthus  and  olive,  but  they  took  such  lib¬ 
erties  in  the  form  of  these  that  they  may  almost  be 
said  to  have  been  imaginary  too. 

Ledgers.  Horizontal  pieces  of  timber  in  scaf¬ 
folding  parallel  to  the  wall  opposite  to  which  they 
arc  erected. 

Lining,  in  joinery.  The  covering  of  an  interior 
surface.  Thus  the  linings  or  boxings  of  window 
shutters  arc  the  pieces  which  form  the  backs  of 
the  recesses  into  which  the  shutters  fold.  In  a 
door  they  arc  the  facings  on  the  sides  of  the 
aperture.  To  a  sash  frame  they  are  the  vertical 
pieces  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  walls. 

Lintel.  A  piece  of  timber  or  stone  placed  hor¬ 
izontally  over  a  door,  window,  or  other  opening. 

List,  or  Listcl.  The  same  as  fillet  or  annulet. 

Listing,  in  carpentry  and  joinery.  The  operation 
of  cutting  away  the  sap  from  the  edge  or  edges  of 
a  board. 

Lujfer  Hoarding.  Inclined  boards  placed  above 
one  another  in  an  aperture,  so  as  to  admit  air 
without  permitting  the  rain  to  penetrate. 

Lutliern.  The  same  as  Dormer,  which  see. 

Mantel.  The  horizontal  cross-piece  placed  on 
the  jamb  of  a  chimney. 

Meros.  The  plain  part  of  a  triglyph.  That  part 
between  the  channels. 

Metoche.  The  space  between  two  dentils. 

M'topa.  The  square  space  between  two  trig¬ 
lyphs  of  the  Doric  order. 

Mezzanine.  A  low  story  introduced  between 
two  principal  stories. 

Middle  Rail,  in  joinery.  That  rail  of  a  door 
which  is  level  with  the  hand.  The  lock  of  the 
door  is  generally  fixed  on  this  rail. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


79 


Minute.  The  sixtieth  part  of  the  diameter  of  a 
column.  It  is  the  sub-division  by  which  architects 
measure  the  smaller  parts  of  an  order. 

Mitre.  The  diagonal  junction  of  two  pieces  of 
wood,  stone,  etc. 


Modillion.  An  ornament  in  the  entablature  of 
the  richer  orders,  resembling  a  bracket.  Modillions 
are  placed,  with  the  intervention  of  one  or  two 
small  horizontal  members,  under  the  corona.  They 
should  be  so  distributed  that  their  centres  may 
always  stand  over  the  centres  of  the  columns.  In 
the  Corinthian  order  they  are  enriched  with 
carving  ;  in  the  Ionic  and  Composite  they  are 
generally  more  simple.  The  term  Mutulus,  which 
is  confined  to  the  Doric  order,  is  in  fact  the  same 
as  Modillion. 


Module.  A  measure  signifying  the  semi-diam¬ 
eter  of  a  column.  This  term  is  only  properly  used 
when  speaking  of  the  Doric  order.  As  a  semi¬ 
diameter,  it  consists  of  only  thirty  minutes. 

Monotriglyph.  The  arrangement  in  which  only 
one  triglyph  is  placed  over  an  intercolumniation. 

Mortise,  in  carpentry.  A  species  of  joint, 
wherein  a  hole  or  incision  of  a  certain  depth  is 
made  in  the  thickness  of  a  piece  of  wood,  for  the 
reception  of  another  piece  called  a  tenon. 

Mosaic  Work.  An  assemblage  of  small  pieces 
of  pebbles,  pieces  of  glass  of  various  colors,  or 
other  pieces  of  materials,  cut  square  and  laid  on  a 
species  of  stucco,  to  form  pavements,  representa¬ 
tions  of  pictures  on  walls,  etc. 

Mouldings.  Those  parts  of  an  order  which  are 
shaped  into  various  curved  or  square  forms. 

Mullion,  or  Munition,  in  architecture.  The  short 
upright  post  or  bar  which  divides  any  two  lights 
in  a  window  frame. 


Mutulus.  See  Modillion. 


Naked.  The  unornamented  plain  surface'  of  a 
wall,  column  or  other  part  of  a  building. 

JVaked  Flooring,  in  carpentry.  The  timber  w.oj'k 
of  a  floor  for  supporting  the  boarding  or  ceding  or, 
both. 


Naos,  or  Celia.  The  part  of  a  temple  within 
the  walls.  That  part  of  the  temple  in  front  of  the 
Naos  was  called  the  Pronaos,  and  that  in  the  rear 
the  Posticum.  This  is  the  etymon  of  our  English 
word  nave. 


Neck  of  a  Capital.  The  space  between  the 
astragal  above  the  shaft,  and  the  annulet  thereover. 


JViche.  A  square  or  cylindrical  cavity  in  a  wall 
or  other  solid,  generally  for  the  reception  of  a 
statue. 

Nosings  of  Steps.  The  rounded  projecting 
j  edges  of  the  treads  or  covers  of  the  steps. 

Notch  Board.  The  board  in  a  staircase  notched 
I  or  grooved  out  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  steps. 

Nut,  of  a  screw.  A  piece  of  iron  pierced  with 
a  cylindrical  hollow,  whose  circumference  contains 
a  spiral  groove.  The  internal  spiral  of  the  nut  is 
adapted  to  an  external  cylindrical  spiral  on  the  end 
of  a  bolt. 

Obelisk.  A  tall  slender  frustum  of  a  pyramid, 
usually  placed  on  a  pedestal.  The  difference 
between  an  obelisk  and  a  pyramid,  independent  of 
the  former  being  only  a  portion  of  the  latter,  is, 
that  it  always  has  a  small  base  in  proportion  to  its 
height. 

Octastylos.  A  building  with  eight  columns  in 
its  front. 

Odeum.  In  ancient  architecture,  a  place  appro¬ 
priated  to  the  performance  of  music. 

(Ecus.  In  ancient  architecture,  an  apartment 
adjoining  to  a  dining-room. 

Offset.  The  upper  surface  of  the  lower  part  of 
a  wall  left,  by  reducing  the  thickness  of  the  super¬ 
incumbent  part  on  one  side  or  the  other,  or  both. 

Ogee,  or  Ogive.  The  same  as  Cyma,  which  see. 

Opisthodomus.  The  enclosed  space  in  the  rear 
of  a  temple. 

Order.  An  assemblage  of  parts,  consisting  of  a 
base,  shaft,  capital,  architrave,  frieze  and  cornice, 
whose  several  services  requiring  some  distinction 
in  strength,  have  been  contrived  or  designed  in  five 
several  species,  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian, 
ahfl,  .Coipppsjte'.,  each  these, hag  its  ornaments, 
,qs;  jvell aii  general’  fabric,  proportioned  to  its 
strength  and  Use.  These  are  the  five  orders  of 
architecture,  the  proper  understanding  and  appli¬ 
cation^  of  whith,.  cops' I  tute  the  foundation  of  all 
.eXceUeqop  jp  flic  art’ 

Orlo.  The  plinth  of  the  base  of  a  column  or 
pedestal. 

Orthography.  A  geometrical  representation  of 
the  elevation  or  section  of  a  building. 

Ovolo.  A  moulding  sometimes  called  the  quarter 
round,  from  its  profile  being  the  quadrant  of  a 
circle ;  when  sculptured  it  is  called  an  Echinus, 
which  see. 


Netvel.  The  solid,  or  imaginary  solid  when  the  Palcestra,  in  Grecian  architecture.  A  building 
stairs  are  open  in  the  centre,  round  which  the  steps  appropriated  to  the  purposes  of  wrestling,  running 
are  turned  about,  etc  *  ° 


80 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


Panel  or  Pannel,  in  joinery,  etc.  A  tympanum 
or  square  piece  of  thin  wood  sometimes  carved, 
framed  or  grooved  into  a  larger  piece  between  two 
montants  or  upright  pieces,  and  two  traverses  or 
cross  pieces. 

From  the  Italian  Parapdto,  breast 
defence  round  a  terrace  or  roof  of  a 

building. 

Paraslalct.  Pilasters  standing  insulated.  See 
Anta. 

Parget.  The  plastering  used  in  coating  the 
internal  surfaces  of  chimnies. 

Parly  Walls.  The  brick  or  stone  division  be¬ 
tween  buildings  in  separate  occupations. 

Patera.  The  representation  of  a  cup  in  has 
relief,  used  as  an  ornament  in  friezes,  fascia;,  and 
imposts. 

Pavilion.  In  old  French  architecture,  the  pro¬ 
jecting  apartment  at  the  flanks  of  a  building. 

Pedestal.  The  substruction  under  a  column  or 
wall.  A  pedestal  under  a  column  consists  of  three 
parts,  the  base,  the  die,  and  the  cornice. 

Pediment.  The  low  triangular  crowning  orna¬ 
ment  of  the  front  of  a  building,  or  of  a  door, 
window  or  niche.  Pediments  are  however  some¬ 
times  in  the  form  of  the  segment  of  a  circle  when 
applied  to  doors  and  windows.  The  pediment  of 
a  building  is  not  unfrequeutly  ornamented  with 
sculpture. 

Peridrome.  The  space,  in  ancient  architecture, 
between  the  columns  and  the  wall. 

Peripteral.  A  term  used  by  the  ancients  to 
signify  a  building  encompassed  by  columns,  forming 
as  it  were  an  aisle  round  the  building. 

Piazza.  A  square  open  space  surrounded  by 
buildings.  This  *?rri  is  ignorantly  used  to  denote 
a  walk  under  an  arcade.  *  *  '  •  : '  :  "  *  * 

Pier.  A  solid  Viet  ween  the  doors  or  windows  of 
a  building.  The  square  or.other  formed  mass  or 
post  to  which  a  gate  is  hung.  T  he  solid  'snppchrt 
from  which  an  arch  springs.  In  <t  bridge,  the  pier 
next  the  shore  is  usually  called  an  abutment  pier. 

Pig  Iron.  Short  thick  bars  of  iron,  as  they 
come  from  the  smelting  furnace. 

Pilaster.  A  square  pillar  engaged  in  a  wall. 

Piles,  in  building,  are  large  timbers  driven  into 
the  earth  to  make  a  foundation  to  build  upon  in 
marshy  ground. 

Pillar.  A  column  of  irregular  form,  always 
disengaged  and  always  deviating  from  the  propor- 


Parapet. 
high.  The 


tions  of  the  orders,  whence  the  distinction  between 
a  pillar  and  a  column. 

Pitch  of  a  Roof.  The  inclination  which  the 
sloping  sides  make  with  the  plane,  or  level  of  the 
wall  plate  ;  or  the  proportion  which  results  from 
dividing  the  span  by  the  height.  Thus,  if  it  be 
asked  what  is  the  pitch  of  any  given  roof,  the 
answer  is,  one-fourth,  one-third,  or  one-half:  when 
the  pitch  is  one-half,  the  roof  is  a  square,  which  is 
tl>e  highest  that  is  used,  or  that  is  necessary  in 
practice. 

Planceer.  The  same  as  Soffit,  which  see. 

Plaster.  The  material  with  which  ornaments 
arc  cast,  and  with  which  the  fine  stuff  of  gauge 
for  mouldings  and  other  parts  is  mixed. 

Platband.  A  square  moulding  whose  projection 
is  less  than  its  height  or  breadth.  The  fillets  be¬ 
tween  the  flutes  of  columns  are  improperly  called 
Platbands.  The  lintel  of  a  door  or  window  is 
sometimes  called  by  this  name. 

Plate,  in  carpentry.  A  horizontal  piece  of 
timber  in  a  wall,  generally  flush  with  the  inside 
face  thereof,  for  the  reception  of  the  ends  of  beams, 
joists  or  rafters. 

Plinth.  The  square  solid  under  the  base  of  a 
column,  pedestal  or  wall. 

Portico.  A  place  wherein  persons  may  walk 
under  shelter,  sometimes  raised  with  arches  in  the 
manner  of  a  gallery.  The  portico  is  occasionally 
vaulted,  but  has  frequently  a  flat  soffit  or  ceiling. 
This  word  is  also  used  to  denote  the  projection 
before  a  church  or  temple,  supported  by  columns. 

Posticum.  The  hack  door  of  a  temple,  also  the 
portico  behind  tire  temple.  See  Naos. 

■  Posts':  All  •upright  or  vertical  pieces  of  timber 
vTa'cVor,  as  ■  truss-]>osts,  door-posts,  quarters  in 
partitions,  etc. 

: Frick  Posts.  Intermediate  posts  in  a  wooden 
btiil/L'ng,  Pained  between  principal  posts. 

Principal.  Any  main  timber  in  an  arrangement 
of  carpentry. 

Profde.  The  contour  of  the  different  parts  of 
an  order. 

Propyla-um,  in  Grecian  architecture.  A  portico 
placed  in  front  of  gates. 

Proscenium.  That  part  of  the  stage  of  a  theatre 
before  the  drop  scene.  In  the  ancient  theatres  it 
comprised  the  whole  of  the  stage. 

Prostylos.  A  building  or  temple  with  columns 
in  from  only. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


81 


Pseudodipteral.  A  term  used  by  the  ancients  to 
signify  a  building  or  temple,  in  which  the  distance 
from  each  side  of  the  cell  to  the  surrounding  col¬ 
umns,  was  equal  to  two  intercolumniations,  but 
wherein  the  intermediate  range  of  columns  which 
would  occur  between  the  outer  range  and  the  cell 
was  omitted. 

Purlines,  in  building.  Those  pieces  of  timber 
that  lie  on  the  principal  rafters,  to  prevent  the 
common  rafters  from  sinking  in  the  middle  of  their 
length. 

Putlogs.  Short  pieces  of  timber  at  right  angles 
to  the  walls  used  in  making  scaffolds. 

Putty.  A  very  fine  cement  made  of  lime  only. 
It  is  thus  prepared;  dissolve  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water,  as  two  or  three  gallons,  an  equal  quantity 
of  fresh  lime,  constantly  stirring  it  with  a  stick 
until  the  lime  be  entirely  slaked,  and  the  whole 
becomes  of  the  consistency  of  mud  ;  so  that  when 
the  stick  is  taken  out  of  it,  it  will  but  just  drop 
therefrom  ;  this  being  sifted  or  run  through  a  hair 
sieve,  to  take  out  the  gross  parts  of  the  lime,  it  is 
fit  for  use.  Putty  differs  from  fine  stuff’  in  the 
manner  of  preparing  it,  and  in  its  being  used  with¬ 
out  hair. 

Pycnostylos.  An  intercolunaniation  equal  to  one 
diameter  and  a  half. 

Pyramid.  A  solid  with  a  square,  polygonal,  or 
triangular  base,  terminating  in  a  point  at  top. 

Quarter  Round.  See  Ovalo  and  Echinus. 

Quirked  Mouldings.  Those  which  are  suddenly 
convex,  generally  in  one  of  the  forms  of  a  conic 
section. 

Quoins.  The  external  and  internal  angles  of 
buildings  or  of  their  members:  the  corners. 

Rafters,  in  carpentry.  All  the  inclined  timbers 
in  the  sides  of  a  roof;  as  principal  rafters,  hip 
rafters,  and  common  rafters. 

Rail,  in  joinery.  A  horizontal  piece  which 
receives  the  tenons  in  a  piece  of  framing,  and  into 
which  the  upper  and  lower  edges  of  the  panels  are 
inserted. 

Raising  Plate,  or  Top  Plate.  That  plate  on 
which  the  roof  is  raised,  or  immediately  placed. 

Ramp.  A  concave  bend  in  the  capping  of  any 
piece  of  workmanship.  Thus  in  stairs  it  is  that 
concavity  which  occurs  over  risers  or  over  a  half 
or  quarter  space  by  the  sudden  rise  of  the  steps. 

Rebate,  in  joinery.  A  groove,  channel,  or  recess, 
sunk  on  the  edge  of  a  board. 

Recess.  A  part  whose  surface  is  within  the  gen¬ 
eral  surface  of  the  work. 


Relief.  The  projection  which  a  figure  or  orna¬ 
ment  has,  from  the  ground  or  plane  on  which  it  is 
sculptured.  When  the  whole  of  the  figure  stands 
out,  the  work  is  said  to  he  Alto  Relievo.  When 
only  half  out,  in  Demi  Relievo,  and  when  it  pro¬ 
jects  very  little,  in  Basso  Relievo. 

Reticulated  Work.  That  in  which  the  courses 
are  arranged  in  a  form  like  the  meshes  of  a  net. 
The  stones  or  bricks  are  square  and  placed  lozenge- 
wise. 

Ribs.  Curviform  limbers  whereto  the  laths  are 
nailed  in  an  arched  or  coved  plaster  celling. 

Ridge.  The  piece  of  wood  against  which  the 
rafters  pitch  on  the  top  of  a  house  or  other  building. 

Riser.  The  upright  part  of  a  step. 

Roman  Order.  Another  name  for  the  Composite. 

Rose.  The  representation  of  this  flower  is  carved 
in  the  centre  of  each  face  of  the  abacus  in  the 
Corintian  capital,  and  is  called  the  Rose  of  that 
capital.  It  is  also  used  in  decorating  the  caissons 
iu  the  soffit  of  the  corona,  and  in  those  of  ceilings. 

Rustic.  The  courses  of  stone  or  brick  in  which 
the  work  is  jagged  out  into  an  irregular  surface. 
Also  work  left  rough  without  tooling. 

Sag.  The  bending  or  curvature  in  the  middle, 
which  a  horizontal  piece  of  timber  takes  from  its 
own  gravity. 

Salon.  An  apartment  for  state,  or  for  the  recep¬ 
tion  of  paintings,  and  usually  running  up  through 
two  stories  of  the  house.  It  may  be  square,  oblong, 
polygonal  or  circular. 

Sash.  The  frame  work  which  holds  the  squares 
of  glass  in  a  window  balanced  by  weights  on  each 
of  its  sides,  hung  thereto  by  lines  running  over 
pulleys  at  the  top  of  the  sash  frame.  When  both 
the  upper  and  lower  sashes  are  moveable  up  and 
down,  a  sash  is  said  to  be  double  hung;  when  only 
one  of  them  moves,  they  are  said  to  be  single  hung. 

Sash  frame.  The  wooden  frame  into  which  the 
sashes  are  fitted. 

Scantling,  in  building.  A  measure,  size  or  stand¬ 
ard,  whereby  the  dimensions,  &,c.  of  things  are  to 
be  determined. 

Scenography.  The  perspective  representation  of 
a  building  and  its  scenery. 

Sciography.  The  doctrine  of  shadows. 

Scotia.  The  name  of  a  hollowed  moulding,  prin¬ 
cipally  used  between  the  tori  in  the  bases  of  col¬ 
umns. 

Shaft.  That  part  of  a  column  which  is  between 
the  base  and  capital :  it  is  also  called  the  Fust  as 
well  as  the  Trunk  of  a  column. 


21 


82 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


Shank.  A  name  given  to  the  insterstitial  spaces 
between  the  channels  of  the  triglyph  in  the  Doric 
frieze.  They  are  sometimes  called  the  legs  of  the 
triglyph,  and  sometimes  femora. 

Shore.  A  piece  of  timber  placed  in  an  oblique 
direction  for  the  security  of  a  wall  or  other  matter. 

Sill.  The  horizontal  piece  at  the  bottom  of  nny 
framing. 

Skew  Back,  in  brickwork  and  masonry.  The 
sloping  abutment  for  the  arched  head  of  a  window. 

Skirting.  The  narrow  vertical  board,  standing 
on  the  floor  round  the  sides  of  an  apartment. 

Sleepers.  Pieces  of  timber  on  which  the  ground 
joists  of  a  floor  rest,  or  those  laid  under  the  plank¬ 
ing  in  a  bad  foundation.  The  term  was  formerly 
applied  to  the  valley  rafters  of  a  roof. 

Socle.  A  square  member  of  greater  breadth  than 
height,  usually  the  same  as  plinth. 

SoffiL  The  ceiling  or  under  side  of  a  member 
in  an  order.  It  also  means  the  under  side  of  the 
larmier  or  corona  in  a  cornice  ;  also  the  under  side 
of  that  part  of  the  architrave  which  does  not  rest 
on  the  columns. 

Spandrel.  The  space  about  the  flanks  or  haunch¬ 
es  of  an  arch  or  vault  above  the  intrados. 

Spurs,  in  carpentry.  The  term  by  which  the 
common  rafters  of  a  roof  are  known. 

Springing.  The  lower  part  of  an  arch. 

Stereobata,  or  Stylobata.  The  same  as  Pedestal. 
Stiles.  The  vertical  parts  of  any  piece  of  fram¬ 
ing  or  panelling. 

Straight  Jlrches.  Heads  of  apertures  which  have 
a  straight  intrados  in  several  pieces,  with  radiating 
joints,  or  bricks  tapering  downwards. 

Straining  Piece.  A  piece  of  timber  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  preventing  the  nearer  approach  towards 
each  other  of  two  other  pieces. 

Stretchers,  llricks  or  stones  laid  lengthwise. 
Stretching  Courses,  are  those  courses  in  which 
bricks  or  stones  are  laid  lengthwise. 

Struts.  Pieces  of  timber  which  support  the 
rafters,  and  w  hich  are  supported  by  the  truss  posts. 

Summer,  in  carpentry,  is  a  large  piece  of  timber 
which  being  supported  on  two  stout  piers  or  posts, 
serves  as  a  lintel  to  a  door,  window,  etc. 

Surbase.  The  upper  base  of  a  room,  or  rather 
the  cornice  of  the  pedestal  of  the  room,  which 
serves  to  finish  the  dado,  and  to  secure  the  plaster 
against  accidents  which  mi^ht  happen  from  the 
backs  of  chairs,  or  other  furniture  at  an  equal 
height. 


Syslylos.  An  intercolumniation  equal  to  two 
diameters. 

Trrnia.  The  listel  above  the  arehitrave  in  the 
entablature  of  the  Doric  order. 

Talon.  The  same  ns  Ogee. 

Telamones.  Figures  of  men  that  support  an  en¬ 
tablature. 

Tenon,  in  carpentry.  The  end  of  a  piece  of 
wood  diminished  in  its  thickness,  to  be  received 
into  a  hole  in  another  piece  called  a  mortise,  for 
jointing  or  fastening  the  two  together. 

Terminus.  A  stone  anciently  used  to  mark  the 
boundary  of  property.  A  pedestal  increasing  up¬ 
wards,  or  sometimes  a  parallelopiped  for  the  recep¬ 
tion  of  a  bust. 

Tetrustylos.  A  building  having  four  columns  in 
front. 

Theatre.  A  building  for  the  exhibition  of  dra¬ 
matic  shows.  It  was  among  the  ancients  semi¬ 
circular  in  form,  see  Amphitheatre,  encompassed 
with  porticos,  and  furnished  with  numerous  seats, 
which  included  a  place  called  the  Orchestra,  in 
front  of  which  was  the  floor  of  the  theatre,  called 
the  Proscenium. 

Thrust.  See  Drift, 

Tie.  A  piece  of  timber  placed  in  any  position 
acting  as  a  string  or  tie,  to  keep  tw’o  masses  to¬ 
gether  which  have  a  tendency  to  spread  to  a  more 
remote  distance  from  each  other. 

Tongue.  The  projecting  part  on  the  edge  of  a 
hoard,  which  is  inserted  into  a  groove  ploughed  on 
the  edge  of  another. 

Toothing,  llricks  projecting  at  the  end  of  a  wall, 
in  order  to  bond  thereiuto  a  continuation  of  the 
wall  when  carried  up. 

Torus.  A  moulding  or  semi-circular  profile  used 
in  the  bases  of  columns. 

Tread.  The  horizontal  part  of  a  step. 

Triglyph.  The  ornament  of  the  frieze  in  the 
Doric  order,  consisting  of  two  whole,  and  two  half 
channels,  sunk  triangularly  on  the  plan. 

Trimmers,  in  carpentry.  Pieces  of  timber  that 
are  framed  at  right  angles  to  the  joists  against  the 
ways  for  chimneys,  and  well  holes  for  stairs. 

Trimming  Joists,  in  enrpentry.  The  two  joists 
into  which  a  trimmer  is  framed. 

Trunk.  See  Shaft.  When  the  word  is  applied 
to  a  pedestal,  it  signifies  the  dado,  die,  or  body  of 
the  pedestal,  answering  to  the  shaft  of  the  column. 

Truss,  in  carpentry.  A  frame  constructed  of 
several  pieces  of  timber,  and  divided  into  two  or 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


83 


more  triangles  by  oblique  pieces,  in  order  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  possibility  of  its  revolving  round  any  of 
the  angles  of  the  frame. 

Trussed  Roof,  in  carpentry.  One  constructed 
within  an  exterior  triangular  frame,  so  as  to  support 
the  principal  rafters  and  the  tie-beain  at  certain 
given  points. 

Tuscan.  One  of  the  orders  of  architecture. 

Tympanum.  The  space  enclosed  by  the  cornice 
of  the  inclined  sides  of  a  pediment,  and  the  hori¬ 
zontal  fillet  of  the  corona. 

Valley.  The  internal  angle  formed  by  two  in¬ 
clined  sides  of  a  roof. 

Valley  Rafters.  Those  which  are  disposed  in 
the  internal  angle  of  a  roof  to  form  the  valleys. 

Vase.  A  term  sometimes  used  to  denote  the 
inverted  bell-like  form  of  the  ground  on  which  the 
leaves  of  the  Corinthian  capital  are  placed. 

Vestibule.  An  anti-hall,  lobby  or  porch. 

Vault.  An  arched  roof  so  contrived  that  the 
stones  or  other  materials  of  which  it  is  composed, 
support  and  keep  each  other  in  their  places. 
Arched  ceilings  are  a  species  of  vaults,  and  are 
circular,  elliptical  or  of  other  forms.  When  more 


than  a  semi-circle,  they  are  called  surmounted,  and 
when  less,  surbased  vaults. 

Volute.  The  scroll  which  is  appended  to  the 
capital  of  the  Ionic  order.  There  are  volutes  also 
in  the  Corinthian  order,  but  they  are  smaller,  more 
numerous,  and  always  diagonally  placed.  In  the 
Composite,  the  volutes  are  also  diagonally  placed, 
but  larger  than  in  the  Corinthian  order. 

Voussoirs.  The  arch  stones  in  the  face  or  faces 
of  an  arch,  the  middle  one  is  called  the  key-stone. 

W all-plates.  The  plates  on  which  the  joists  and 
raising  plates  rest. 

Water-table.  A  species  of  ledge  left  upon  stone 
or  brick  walls,  about  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  or 
more  from  the  ground,  from  which  place  the  thick¬ 
ness  of  the  wall  is  diminished. 

Washer.  A  piece  of  flat  iron  with  a  hole,  placed 
between  the  nut  of  a  screw  and  the  wood,  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  wood  being  gulled. 

Weather  Boarding.  Feather-edged  boards  nailed 
upright  with  a  lap  over  each  other. 

Wrought.  Brought  to  a  fair  surface. 

Zoophoros.  The  same  as  frieze. 


st ^  n-a 

232  5  4 


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IHfc  GETTY  CENTER 

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